Resources for Forensic Sciences and Adherence to New Technologies as Fundamental Elements for Elucidating Crimes

Forensic Genetics and their Latest Developments

Forensic genetics has made significant advances in the last 40 years of history and is considered by many professionals as the gold standard of forensic sciences worldwide, despite the occasional errors that have been revealed throughout its development [6, 7]. These mistakes have increasingly forged and strengthened forensic DNA technology in terms of its procedures, methodologies, statistics, innovations, and extremely high-quality criteria in analyzing the technical evidence. The first forensic DNA case on the planet happened in the United Kingdom [8] and, at the time, DNA dragnet from 4,852 volunteers was done [9]. Still, the crime was not solved at first. Initially, DNA technology was used to exonerate suspects. The perpetrator of the crime was genetically identified only later, and the case found a solution. In any case, this case gives an idea of how much resources were spent to extract and process DNA from 4,852 samples, in the 1980s, when the costs of genetic analysis were still exorbitant. For more information on the development of forensic genetics technology, please consult the recent review published by Panneerchelvam S, et al. [9].

More current technologies, such as Forensic DNA Phenotyping (FDP) or Genetic Genealogy (GG) have also helped to solve forensic cases [10, 11, 12, 13, 14] and has aroused the interest of many countries, but caution is needed, and such technologies have methodological and/or ethical obstacles to further progress in the forensic routine.

Forensic DNA Phenotyping (FDP) is a technology used mainly to reduce the number of suspects and reduce the DNA dragnet needed to establish the facts, saving money in a criminal investigation [13, 15].

This investigation will look for suspects with specific physical characteristics such as hair color, eye color, skin color, height, age, among other phenotypes indicated by DNA testing, to later solve the case with conventional genetic analysis (Short Tandem Repeats, for instance) (see the recent review on the topic published by Kayser M, et al. [13]. This technology had its name coined in 2008 [16] and the first country with a legal provision on the topic, since 2003, was the Netherlands, according to the authors. It is interesting to note that the scientific community has a consensus on applying only Externally Visible Characteristics (EVCs) in FDP technology [15, 17] in compliance with ethical standards on the confidentiality of human genetic data associated with a person (The Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights; International Declaration on Human Genetic Data) [18, 19]. However, this technology has already been used, at least in Italy and the USA, for the benefit of defendants (for example, to reduce the sentence or change the sentence from an intentional crime to a culpable crime), to indicate that such individuals had “low activity variant of MAO-A, which made them genetically predisposed towards violence” (a non-EVC) [20]. Could we say that everything is allowed for the benefit of the defendants? This is a reflection for another time. Some countries have already used the FDP in forensic practice, such as the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Poland, Spain, United Kingdom, Slovakia, Sweden, Hungary, among others for more detailed information, please consult Schneider PM, et al. [21].

In continuation, Genetic Genealogy (GG), in turn, is the technology that uses genetic data available in public or private databases of the civilian population (for example, from direct-to-consumer genetic testing such as 23andme, AncestryDNA, and other databases) to point out possible kinship relationships (shared alleles and/or identical chromosome segments by descent) between two or more individuals [14]. Such technology can be used to investigate possible genetic relationships between a sample left at a crime scene and the sample in these databases, aiming to find criminals through their relatives whose DNA is already available online. Indeed, an emblematic example of Genetic Genealogy analysis was the closure of the Golden State Killer case (Joseph James DeAngelo), using GEDMatch, as shown by Erlich G, et al. [10] and discussed by Guerrini CJ, et al. [11]. Erlich G, et al. [10] indicated some cold cases solved with the help of Genetic Genealogy technology, with long-range familial DNA searches. Guerrini CJ, et al. [11], in turn, conducted a survey in which it was found that people generally agree with the use of Genetic Genealogy to catch criminals, especially when it comes to violent crimes, crimes against children, or finding lost people. This latest study also revealed that the majority of questionnaire respondents (n=1,587, from the USA) even agree with the creation of fake profiles by police forces to search for additional information about suspects. Machado H, et al. [22] reviewed the public opinion on forensic DNA testing and also discussed how DNA databases and these new technologies (FDP and GG, especially) tend to be well regarded by the population (including an optimistic view of prisoners) and, also, how they can be used for the benefit of public safety on the planet. In an independent study, carried out by Del Real A, et al. [23], the opinion on the national DNA database and familial searching showed the same tendency of optimism among the prisoners and prison officials interviewed in Spain. Some countries, such as the USA, UK, China, Sweden, Spain, Netherlands and New Zealand are already exploring Genetic Genealogy technology or have already implemented it in forensic routine, according to the review published by Wang M, et al. [14]. The latter authors have even provided a map of the distribution of forensic cases (solved or under investigation) of Genetic Genealogy worldwide.

Anyway, the solution to a criminal conflict depends on continuous scientific development and massive investments in devices and technologies for the proper performance of the bodies involved in public security as a whole. In Brazil, for example, as far as I know, a DNA dragnet has never been carried out to solve a crime. In this country, the DNA database was only implemented and integrated in all states in 2013, when the regulations for this purpose were published [24]. Contrarily and worthy of consideration, in India, there is still no DNA database available for the proper analysis of the genetic data produced by the country, even considering its population of over 1 billion people [25]. A broader overview of the DNA database situation in other countries can be found at Del Real A, et al. [23]. In Brazil, the low resolution of homicides and other crimes is recognized, compared to the crime resolution rate in more developed countries [5].