Beta Fulltext view is in preview — article structure may vary. Browse all articles
Contents
Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access Research Article 25 min read

Nanotechnology in Immobilization: Harnessing the Magnetic Nanoparticles for Medicine and Remediation Applications

Jabbar ZH*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2574-187X  10.23880/nnoa-16000305  Received: March 28, 2024  Published: April 04, 2024
 — views
 60 references
 2 figures
PDF
Keywords
Magnetite Nanoparticles Microorganism Immobilization Removal of Toxic Pollutants Nano-Medicine Biocatalysis
Abstract

Magnetite nanomaterials have garnered significant interest in the field of biomedical sciences and hold great promise for various applications. One such innovative technique is the loading of microorganisms using magnetic-based carriers, which has gained more research interest in environmental pollution control. However, despite its potential, this approach remains relatively unexplored in the existing literature. Compared to conventional methods of cell immobilization and suspended microorganism technology, magnetic nanoparticles offer several advantages, including the ease of catalyst retrieval from the liquid phase. This review highlights the applications of immobilized magnetic nanomaterials in both environmental contaminant remediation and the medical field. Immobilization techniques offer effective solutions to enhance the efficiency and stability of catalytic enzymes, enabling their separation and facilitating reusability in industrial processes. Our discussion proved that magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are considered a promising choice for immobilization due to their outstanding properties, including easy recovery, stabilization, and reusability. Magnetic nanomaterials hold great potential as a future direction for immobilization, offering numerous advantages in various applications.

Introduction

Nanotechnology, the science and engineering of manipulating matter at the nanoscale, has revolutionized numerous fields, including medicine, electronics, energy, and materials science [1]. Its unique properties and capabilities have also found compelling applications in the field of immobilization. Immobilization, the confinement of biological entities such as cells, enzymes, or biomolecules within a matrix or support material, has been employed in various areas such as biocatalysis, bioremediation, biosensors, and drug delivery systems [2, 3]. The integration of nanotechnology with immobilization techniques has opened up new frontiers, offering unprecedented control, efficiency, and versatility in immobilization systems [4, 5]. By leveraging nanomaterials and nanoscale engineering, researchers have overcome traditional limitations associated with conventional immobilization methods, enabling precise control over the immobilized entities’ behavior, stability, and functionality [6]. Nanotechnology brings forth a multitude of benefits, including improved mass transfer rates, enhanced surface area-to-volume ratio, tunable surface properties, and compatibility with diverse biological entities [7, 8]. One of the key advantages of nanotechnology in immobilization is the ability to tailor the properties of the immobilization matrix at the nanoscale. Nanomaterials such as nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanocomposites, and nanogels offer a wide range of physical, chemical, and mechanical properties that can be harnessed to optimize the immobilization process [9, 10]. Nanotechnology in immobilization has witnessed remarkable progress in recent years, owing to advancements in nanomaterial synthesis, characterization techniques, and surface functionalization strategies [11]. Researchers have exploited a wide range of nanomaterials, including metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, polymeric nanoparticles, and hybrid nanocomposites, to achieve tailored immobilization platforms with enhanced performance [12]. Novel fabrication techniques such as electrospinning, self-assembly, layer-by-layer deposition, and 3D printing have enabled the creation of complex nanoscale architectures for immobilization applications [13]. New nanomaterials with high sorption capacities have revolutionized the capture of heavy metal ions by rapidly reaching equilibrium. These nanoparticles are a promising generation of environmental remediation technologies, particularly for removing toxic pollutants like heavy metals and metalloids. Additionally, nanoparticles offer flexible and versatile support for microbial cells, providing large specific surfaces in relation to their volume [14].

Compared to metallic nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles can achieve greater adsorption capacity. Magnetic immobilization involves trapping microbial cells within magnetic nanoparticles, enabling manipulation through external magnetic fields. This innovative approach, specifically in the magnetic separation of biosorbents from streams of the wastewaters and groundwater, has led to the development of microbial nanoparticles with promising applications [15]. The immobilization process can be achieved through various techniques such as physical adsorption, covalent binding, or encapsulation [16].

This review focuses on exploring the key properties and advantages of magnetic nanoparticles. Additionally, it discusses their application in the fields of medicine and environmental pollutant removal, highlighting their significance and potential benefits.

Magnetic Nanoparticles Properties

Magnetic nanoparticles (NPs) are nanoscale particles composed of magnetic elements, such as iron, chromium, manganese, nickel, gadolinium, and cobalt. They exhibit super paramagnetic properties, making them highly versatile in various applications. Ferrite nanoparticles are the most commonly studied MNPs [17]. Magnetic nanoparticles exhibited robust selectivity to contact functional molecules and directed to specific locations using an external magnetic field. To prevent aggregation and interaction with the environment, surface coating is necessary, often achieved through modifications with silicones, surfactants, or silica [18, 19]. The properties of MNPs depend on the synthesis method and their chemical composition. MNPs display zero coercivity, no hysteresis, and can be magnetized and demagnetized by an external magnetic field, making them suitable for environmental applications, targeted drug delivery, and controlled therapy [20, 21]. Additionally, MNPs exhibit the magnetocaloric effect, heating up in a magnetic field and cooling down when the field is removed. Their small size and large surface area offer advantages over conventional bulk materials, enabling improved heat exchange with the surroundings. Various techniques can be employed to produce magnetic nanostructures in different morphologies, such as, nanosphere, nanocubes, nanorod, and nanowires. Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles, for instance, can be synthesized using various strategies, like wet chemistry or “bottom-up” approaches like sol-gel, solvothermal, co- precipitation, hydrothermal, electrochemical, laser pyrolysis techniques, and flow injection syntheses [22, 23].

Immobilization on Magnetic Particles

The immobilization technology encompasses various methods for attaching or entrapping particles or cells, including microbial cells, enzymes, plant cells, and animal cells, as illustrated in Figure 1. The researchers also have been reported the using of immobilized non-living microbial biomass. These immobilization techniques find applications in diverse industries such as biotechnology, environmental, pharmaceutical, and food [16]. The utilization of immobilized microorganisms offers several advantages over free cells in industrial biotransformation, bioprocesses, and biodegradation. These advantages include improved regeneration, recovery, higher stability, and recycling of the biocatalyst. Additionally, immobilized cells can serve as effective alternatives to enzyme immobilization, acting as carriers of necessary enzyme activities while being insoluble in water. “The confinement of microbial cells within a defined region, retaining their catalytic activities, allows for continuous use of the catalyst. This approach has found success in various environmental operations [24, 25]. Nanomaterials, with their unique physico-chemical properties such as specific efficient diffusion loading, surface area, high mechanical strength, mass transfer resistance, and provide interesting structures for immobilizing microbes [15]. Magnetic nanoparticles have the added advantage of easy separation using an external magnetic field [26]. Therefore, immobilizing microbial cells within magnetic nanoparticles shows promise in enhancing the viability of microorganisms in industrial applications. Unfortunately, the high construction costs of MNPs for large-scale applications pose a significant challenge in microorganism immobilization. The development of low-cost and environmentally friendly methods for synthesizing nanoparticles on a large scale is an ongoing endeavor [27].

Figure 1: The researchers also have been reported the using of immobilized non-living microbial biomass. These immobilization techniques find applications in diverse industries such as biotechnology, environmental, pharmaceutical, and food [16]. The utilization of immobilized microorganisms offers several advantages over free cells in industrial biotransformation, bioprocesses, and biodegradation. These advantages include improved regeneration, recovery, higher stability, and recycling of the biocatalyst. Additionally, immobilized cells can serve as effective alternatives to enzyme immobilization, acting as carriers of necessary enzyme activities while being insoluble in water. “The confinement of microbial cells within a defined region, retaining their catalytic activities, allows for continuous use of the catalyst. This approach has found success in various environmental operations [24,25]. Nanomaterials, with their unique physico-chemical properties such as specific efficient diffusion loading, surface area, high mechanical strength, mass transfer resistance, and provide interesting structures for immobilizing microbes [15]. Magnetic nanoparticles have the added advantage of easy separation using an external magnetic field [26]. Therefore, immobilizing microbial cells within magnetic nanoparticles shows promise in enhancing the viability of microorganisms in industrial applications. Unfortunately, the high construction costs of MNPs for large-scale applications pose a significant challenge in microorganism immobilization. The development of low-cost and environmentally friendly methods for synthesizing nanoparticles on a large scale is an ongoing endeavor [27].
Click to enlarge
Figure 1: The researchers also have been reported the using of immobilized non-living microbial biomass. These immobilization techniques find applications in diverse industries such as biotechnology, environmental, pharmaceutical, and food [16]. The utilization of immobilized microorganisms offers several advantages over free cells in industrial biotransformation, bioprocesses, and biodegradation. These advantages include improved regeneration, recovery, higher stability, and recycling of the biocatalyst. Additionally, immobilized cells can serve as effective alternatives to enzyme immobilization, acting as carriers of necessary enzyme activities while being insoluble in water. “The confinement of microbial cells within a defined region, retaining their catalytic activities, allows for continuous use of the catalyst. This approach has found success in various environmental operations [24,25]. Nanomaterials, with their unique physico-chemical properties such as specific efficient diffusion loading, surface area, high mechanical strength, mass transfer resistance, and provide interesting structures for immobilizing microbes [15]. Magnetic nanoparticles have the added advantage of easy separation using an external magnetic field [26]. Therefore, immobilizing microbial cells within magnetic nanoparticles shows promise in enhancing the viability of microorganisms in industrial applications. Unfortunately, the high construction costs of MNPs for large-scale applications pose a significant challenge in microorganism immobilization. The development of low-cost and environmentally friendly methods for synthesizing nanoparticles on a large scale is an ongoing endeavor [27].

Application

Magnetic nanoparticles immobilized cell applications involve the use of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) that are attached or immobilized onto beads or microspheres for various purposes. This approach combines the unique properties of MNPs with the advantages of bead-based systems, creating a versatile platform for a wide range of applications [28]. The immobilization of MNPs onto cells allows for easy handling and separation of the nanoparticles from the surrounding medium using an external magnetic field. The beads serve as a support matrix, providing stability and a larger surface area for the attachment of MNPs [29]. One of the key applications of magnetic nanoparticles immobilized cell systems is in biotechnology and the field of diagnostics. These systems are commonly utilized for the separation and purification of biomolecules, including proteins, DNA, and viruses. The MNPs attached to the beads act as affinity ligands, allowing for efficient and selective capture of the target molecules from complex biological samples [30, 31]. The magnetic separation capability enables rapid and easy isolation of the target molecules, making it a valuable tool in research laboratories and clinical settings.

Furthermore, magnetic nanoparticles immobilized bead systems find applications in environmental remediation, particularly in the removal of pollutants and heavy metals from water and soil. The MNPs attached to the beads can selectively bind to the contaminants, facilitating their extraction from the environment. The magnetic separation enables the effective removal of the loaded beads, allowing for repeated use and regeneration of the system [15]. In addition, magnetic nanoparticles immobilized bead systems have been explored for drug delivery applications. The MNPs can be functionalized with therapeutic agents and attached to the beads, creating a platform for targeted and controlled drug release. The magnetic field can be utilized to guide the drug-loaded beads to the desired site within the body, enhancing the specificity and efficiency of drug delivery [23, 32].

Two main approaches are used for functionalizing magnetic nanoparticles. The first involves coating the nanoparticles with biofunctional molecules like antibodies, ligands, or receptors. “This enables specific interactions with biological entities, offering control over tagging and providing high selectivity and sensitivity for various biological applications. The second approach involves integrating magnetic nanoparticles with other materials, such as metallic nanoparticles, to form heterodimer structures. These structures have distinct surfaces and properties, allowing attachment of different functional molecules to specific parts. This opens up possibilities for binding to multiple receptors, serving as agents for multimodality imaging, and acting as platforms for bacteria detection and therapeutic agents” [33].

Biomedical Field: Magnetic nanoparticles have diverse applications in hyperthermia, targeted drug delivery, imaging, and biomolecule extraction. They play a crucial role in cancer treatment, particularly in hyperthermia-based therapies that can induce antitumoral immunity. Unlike nonselective cytotoxic drugs, MNPs offer a potential solution by selectively targeting cancer cells while minimizing damage to normal tissues, leveraging the inherent vulnerability of cancer cells to cytotoxic effects. MNPs hold promise for effective and precise treatment of chronic diseases like cancer [23]. Nanoparticles are engineered to have sizes comparable to biological vesicles and molecules, facilitating their transport through blood vessels to specific targets. They can then release their cargo at the disease site. The key advantage of magnetic nanoparticles is their ability to be precisely controlled in terms of location and activation using alternating magnetic fields (kHz-MHz). Importantly, these fields have minimal adverse effects on the human body [34]. Nanoparticles offer several advantages such as customizable shapes and sizes, high drug encapsulation, reduced toxicity, efficacy, stability, and the ability to incorporate hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. They can enter the capillary pores of cancer cells, increasing drug concentrations and targeting specific cancer cells effectively [35, 36]. Also, nanoparticles can be synthesized from a wide range of precursor materials, such as inorganic materials, polymers and lipids [37]. Kumar, et al. [38] investigated the efficacy of chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) loaded with trans-resveratrol (RSV) and ferulic acid (FER), conjugated with folic acid (FA) (C-RSV-FER-FA-SLNs), for targeting colon cancer. The SLNs demonstrated good stability, even under acidic conditions, making them suitable as a drug delivery system. These findings suggest that C-RSV-FER-FA-SLNs have potential as promising nanodrug formulations for cancer therapy.

Li, et al. [39] synthesized nanoparticles using a phospholipid complex, DSPE-PEG-FA, for delivering mitomycin C (MMC). They employed a simple one-pot self-assembly method to prepare MMC-phospholipid complex-loaded DSPE-PEG-based nanoparticles (MP-PEG- FA NPs). Cellular studies revealed MMC distribution in the nuclei following uptake, facilitating intracellular drug delivery. Notably, systemically administered MP-PEG-FA NPs exhibited improved blood persistence and enhanced tumor accumulation in nude mice bearing HeLa tumors. The findings suggest the potential of these nanoparticles for effective drug delivery in cancer therapy, as shown in Figure 2. Gawali, et al. [40] developed water-dispersible Fe3O4 MNPs functionalized with glutaric acid (Glu-MNPs) using a high- temperature thermal decomposition method. To enhance colloidal stability and heating efficacy, Glu-MNPs were conjugated with BSA protein through covalent bridging, resulting in protein-conjugated Glu-MNPs (Pro-Glu-MNPs). Pro-Glu-MNPs exhibited superparamagnetic behavior, biocompatibility with normal cells, and higher heating efficacy compared to Glu-MNPs under an AC magnetic field. The study highlights the potential of Pro-Glu-MNPs for hyperthermia therapy, as they are dispersible in cell culture media, phosphate buffer saline, and water, with magnetic heating efficacy dependent on the dispersing medium.

Figure 2: Gawali, et al. [40] developed water-dispersible Fe3O4 MNPs functionalized with glutaric acid (Glu-MNPs) using a high- temperature thermal decomposition method. To enhance colloidal stability and heating efficacy, Glu-MNPs were conjugated with BSA protein through covalent bridging, resulting in protein-conjugated Glu-MNPs (Pro-Glu-MNPs). Pro-Glu-MNPs exhibited superparamagnetic behavior, biocompatibility with normal cells, and higher heating efficacy compared to Glu-MNPs under an AC magnetic field. The study highlights the potential of Pro-Glu-MNPs for hyperthermia therapy, as they are dispersible in cell culture media, phosphate buffer saline, and water, with magnetic heating efficacy dependent on the dispersing medium.
Click to enlarge
Figure 2: Gawali, et al. [40] developed water-dispersible Fe3O4 MNPs functionalized with glutaric acid (Glu-MNPs) using a high- temperature thermal decomposition method. To enhance colloidal stability and heating efficacy, Glu-MNPs were conjugated with BSA protein through covalent bridging, resulting in protein-conjugated Glu-MNPs (Pro-Glu-MNPs). Pro-Glu-MNPs exhibited superparamagnetic behavior, biocompatibility with normal cells, and higher heating efficacy compared to Glu-MNPs under an AC magnetic field. The study highlights the potential of Pro-Glu-MNPs for hyperthermia therapy, as they are dispersible in cell culture media, phosphate buffer saline, and water, with magnetic heating efficacy dependent on the dispersing medium.

Contaminants Treatment

The remarkable biocompatibility, high efficiency, and natural abundance of magnetic nanoparticles have highlighted their potential for nutrient removal from wastewater. These particles are recognized for their ability to effectively and safely remove nutrients, making them a promising solution for wastewater treatment [41]. Studies have indicated that ferric oxides possess the capability to selectively eliminate phosphate from wastewater. The exceptional properties of Fe3O4, such as its high surface area, accessibility for pollutant interaction, favorable surface reactivity, pH stability, and eco-friendly characteristics, have captured the interest of researchers involved in the advancement of environmental remediation approaches [42]. Nonetheless, the small size of iron oxide particles presents difficulties in terms of recycling within a continuous flow system and the accumulation of substantial amounts of chemical waste, leading to heightened costs. To address this procedural limitation, numerous researchers have directed their attention towards incorporating doped ferric oxides into microbial exopolysaccharides, resulting in larger particle sizes. Darwesh, et al. [43] achieved the immobilization of peroxidase on Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles using glutaraldehyde co-precipitation. The resulting MNPs-immobilized peroxidase displayed exceptional stability against temperature and pH changes compared to the free enzyme. It retained full activity after storage at 4 and 25°C for 90 days and through 100 recycling cycles. Notably, the MNPs-immobilized peroxidase effectively decolorized dyes with diverse chemical compositions in a laboratory-scale bioreactor. Govarthanan, et al. [41] synthesized a novel magnetic nano-composite particle called Fe3O4@EPS by co-precipitating iron (III) chloride and iron (II) sulfate (Fe3O4 nanoparticles) with exopolysaccharides (EPS) derived from the microalga Chlorella vulgaris. The researchers investigated its efficacy in nutrient removal from wastewater. Under optimized conditions (3.5 g/L of Fe3O4@ EPS, pH 7.0, and 13 hours of incubation), the nano-composite demonstrated effective removal of 91% of PO4 3− and 85% of NH4+ from the wastewater. Patel, et al. [44] successfully immobilized Rhus vernicifera laccase (RvLac) onto magnetic nanoparticles using covalent methods. Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 nanoparticles activated with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane and glutaraldehyde exhibited the highest immobilization yields and relative activity, reaching up to 81.4% and 84.3% respectively, at an optimum incubation time of 18 hours and pH of 5.8. Fe2O3 nanoparticles achieved a maximum RvLac loading of 156 mg/g of support. The immobilized enzyme displayed a higher optimum pH and temperature of 4.0 and 45 °C, compared to 3.5 and 40°C for the free form. The study demonstrated efficient immobilization of RvLac on magnetic nanoparticles, resulting in enhanced loading, improved temperature and pH profiles, thermal and solvent stability, high reusability, and enhanced degradation of bisphenol A. Ghorbani-Vaghei, et al. [45] developed a nanocomposite consisting of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) on a sodium alginate (Alg) covered magnetite (Fe3O4@Alg-AuNPs). This nanocomposite exhibited excellent catalytic performance in the reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol. UV- Vis spectroscopy was employed to quantitatively monitor the reduction process, demonstrating high yields (99%) achieved in a short reaction time (1.5-4 minutes) using a low catalyst load (1-3 mg) in aqueous media at room temperature. The study highlights the potential of the Fe3O4@Alg-AuNPs nanocomposite as an efficient catalyst for various applications. Sabit, et al. [46] developed a dual-S- scheme system by integrating 0D CuO/ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles with 2D BiOBr nanoplates. The resulting CuO/ZnFe2O4/ BiOBr (CO/ZFO/BOB) heterojunction showed exceptional photo-efficiency in levofloxacin degradation, achieving 91% efficiency in 90 minutes. This was a significant improvement compared to individual components, with enhancements of 5.61, 3.79, and 4.19 times over BOB, ZFO, and CO, respectively. The coupling of CuO/ZnFe2O4 with BiOBr facilitated efficient photon utilization and enhanced separation of photo-carriers, operating in a unique dual-S- scheme mode”. In addition, many treatment techniques used the immobilization technique in their activity such as: Photocatalysis Technology: Which is an advanced oxidation strategy that utilizes solar or simulated light irradiation to generate potent oxidants, which are then employed to degrade environmental contaminants [47]. Jabbar, et al. [48] designed and synthesized a novel magnetic nano-hybrid, BWO/FO/ GCN, through a three-step synthesis process for antibiotic mineralization using visible and sunlight irradiation. The nano-hybrid achieved strong interfacial contact by combining hierarchical Bi2WO6 (BWO) and Fe3O4 (FO) nanoparticles with g-C3N4 nanosheets (GCN), resulting in an S-type charge transfer system. The optimized BWO/FO/GCN heterojunction exhibited several advantageous features, including efficient solar-light utilization, exceptional photo-redox capacity, rapid charge disintegration, easy magnetic separation, cost- effectiveness, and environmental friendliness. Moreover, the S-type heterojunction demonstrated remarkable catalytic degradation efficiency, achieving degradation percentages of 84.5% and 61.4% for the levofloxacin (LEV) antibiotic under visible and sunlight irradiation, respectively. Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC): which are defined as modern technique for treating industrial wastewater and converting the organic content to bioenergy [49]. Liu, et al., [50] investigated a new type of anode consisting of electrospun porous α-Fe2O3 nanofibers integrated with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) was developed for MFCs. The CNTs/α-Fe2O3 anode exhibited excellent electrical conductivity, ultrahigh porosity, and a three-dimensional interpenetrated network, which facilitated the colonization of active bacteria and promoted efficient EET. As a result, the MFC equipped with the CNTs/α-

Fe2O3 nanofiber anode achieved a remarkable power density of 1959 mW/m2 and a high chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency of 85.04%. These performance metrics surpassed those of an MFC with an α-Fe2O3 anode (940 mW/ m2; 81.66%) and a bulk carbon cloth anode (432 mW/m2; 65.83%). Significantly, the modified CNTs/α-Fe2O3 anode facilitated the attachment of electrogenic active bacteria, leading to improved bioelectricity production. This research demonstrates the potential of using CNTs/α-Fe2O3 nanofibers as anodes in MFCs for power generation and pollutant removal. Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR): was developed as a solution to address various limitations encountered in other wastewater treatment systems, such as hydraulic instability, inadequate working volume in trickling filters, mechanical failures in rotating biological contactors, and uneven distribution of biofilm on support in aerated submerged fluidized-bed reactors [51]. Su, et al. [52] investigated the synthesis of a new adsorbent and bacterial cells immobilized carrier called Fe3O4@Cu/PVA biomaterial. The structure and morphology of the biomaterial were characterized using scanning electron microscopy. The study focused on examining the effects of various factors on autotrophic denitrification based on Mn(II) in a moving bed biofilm reactor. The results revealed that the highest efficiency in nitrate removal and Mn(II) oxidation occurred when the initial Mn(II) concentration was 80 mg/L, the hydraulic retention time was 10 hours, and the pH was 7. Chromatography analysis demonstrated that N2 gas was produced as an end- product, with variations in gas composition depending on the concentration of Mn(II) in the MBBR. The concentration of Mn(II) significantly influenced the community diversity within the MBBR, and the bacterium Pseudomonas sp. H-117 played a crucial role in the processes of Mn(II) oxidation and nitrate removal. Adsorption: is a process in which particles adhere to the surface of a material. Various adsorbents, such as bamboo- activated carbon, chitin, carbon nanotubes, chitosan, and peanut shell, can be utilized for this purpose [53]. Ghadami, et al. [54] conducted lab-scale and batch experiments to investigate the parameters affecting the removal of tetracycline by preparing Ho2MoO6/Fe2O3 nanocomposites via a green and simple method, including temperature, adsorbent amount, initial antibiotic concentration, and contact time. Response Surface Methodology (Central Composite Design) was utilized to optimize these parameters and develop a predictive model for tetracycline removal. The obtained data from practical tests were compared with Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms. Additionally, the adsorption kinetics of the new adsorbent were studied. The results revealed that the highest removal efficiency, reaching 99.96%, was achieved at 30°C, with 1000 mg of nano adsorbent per liter, 20 mg/L of tetracycline, and 90 minutes of incubation. Based on the Response Surface Methodology, the quadratic model proved to be the most suitable equation for predicting tetracycline separation using the nano adsorbent, with an R2 value of 0.9931. Furthermore, the adsorption kinetics followed pseudo-second-order kinetics, and the Langmuir isotherm model was found to be applicable. The nanocomposite exhibited a high adsorption capacity for tetracycline and its magnetic properties facilitated easy separation, making it an ideal choice for removing tetracycline from water. Gas Adsorption: which is a process that occurs primarily on the surface of sensitive materials, making the surface structure crucial for high-quality sensing materials. Nanomaterials, with their large surface area, exhibit superior sensing performance [55]. Yang, et al. [55] designed and investigated four types of α-Fe2O3 nanorods (standing, surface-threaded, sugar-gourd-shaped, nano-zigzag) for hydrogen adsorption using reactive molecular dynamics. The results showed that nano-zigzag structures had lower hydrogen adsorption efficiency compared to standing nanorods, while surface-threaded and sugar-gourd-shaped structures performed exceptionally well. The width of the thread on surface-threaded nanorods affected the adsorption rate, while the adsorption efficiency of sugar- gourd-shaped nanorods was influenced by the diameter of the spheres. Temperature increase within the range of 300- 600 K negatively impacted hydrogen adsorption on α-Fe2O3 nanostructures. These findings provide valuable insights for the nanoscale structural design of gas sensors [56, 57, 58, 59, 60].

Conclusion

Conventional methods of cell immobilization and suspended microorganism technology have limitations, such as difficulty in separating the catalyst from the liquid phase and the need for continuous replenishment of microorganisms. In contrast, magnetic nanoparticles offer several advantages in the context of immobilizing microorganisms. One key advantage is the ease of catalyst retrieval from the liquid phase. The magnetic nature of the nanoparticles allows for their efficient separation using external magnetic fields, enabling easy recovery and reuse of the immobilized microorganisms. In addition to their potential in biomedical applications, this review emphasizes the application of immobilized magnetic nanoparticles in the remediation of contaminants from the environment. Environmental pollution control is a pressing global concern, and the immobilization of microorganisms using magnetic nano-based carriers can provide an effective solution. By immobilizing microorganisms on magnetic nanoparticles, their stability and efficiency can be improved, enabling them to effectively degrade pollutants and remediate contaminated environments. Furthermore, immobilization techniques offer numerous benefits in industrial processes. By immobilizing catalytic enzymes on magnetic nanoparticles, their stability and activity can be enhanced, leading to improved performance and longevity. Additionally, the magnetic nature of the nanoparticles facilitates the separation of the catalyst from the reaction mixture, simplifying downstream processing and reducing costs. The ability to reuse the immobilized catalyst in continuous industrial processes further enhances the economic and environmental sustainability of the immobilization approach. Among various supporting materials for immobilization, magnetic nanoparticles are considered a promising direction for future research and applications. Their exceptional properties, such as stabilization, easy recovery, and reusability, make them highly suitable for immobilization purposes. The ease of recovery through magnetic separation simplifies the separation process and allows for repeated use of the immobilized microorganisms or enzymes, reducing costs and waste generation.

References

  1. Nasrollahzadeh M, Sajadi SM, Sajjadi M, Issaabadi Z (2019) An introduction to nanotechnology. In Interface science and technology 28: 1-27.‏
  2. Najim AA, Ismail ZZ, Hummadi KK (2022) Biodegradation potential of sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) by mixed cells in domestic and non-domestic actual wastewaters: Experimental and kinetic studies. Biochemical Engineering Journal 180: 108374.‏
  3. Najim AA, Ismail ZZ, Hummadi KK (2023). Immobilization of mixed bacteria by novel biocarriers extracted from Cress and Chia seeds for biotreatment of anionic surfactant (SDS)-bearing real wastewaters. Preparative Biochemistry & Biotechnology 53(7): 753-762.‏
  4. Singh K, Mishra A, Sharma D, Singh K (2019) Nanotechnology in enzyme immobilization: An overview on enzyme immobilization with nanoparticle matrix. Current Nanoscience 15(3): 234-241.‏
  5. Jabbar ZH, Ebrahim SE (2021) Highly efficient visible- light-driven photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants by using magnetically separable supported heterogeneous nanocomposites (SiO2/Fe3O4/Ag2WO4). Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management 16: 100554.‏
  6. Chen EY, Liu WF, Megido L, Díez P, Fuentes M, et al. (2018) Understanding and utilizing the biomolecule/ nanosystems interface. In Nanotechnologies in preventive and regenerative medicine pp: 207-297.‏
  7. Lim CT (2017) Nanofiber technology: current status and emerging developments. Progress in polymer science 70: 1-17.‏
  8. Tarafdar JC, Raliya R (2012) Nanotechnology. In: 1st (Edn.), Scientific Publishers, pp: 214.‏
  9. Ansari SA, Husain Q (2012) Potential applications of enzymes immobilized on/in nano materials: A review. Biotechnology advances 30(3): 512-523.‏
  10. Bilal M, Qamar SA, Ashraf SS, Rodríguez-Couto S, Iqbal HM (2021) Robust nanocarriers to engineer nanobiocatalysts for bioprocessing applications. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 293: 102438.‏
  11. Shuai W, Das RK, Naghdi M, Brar SK, Verma M (2017) A review on the important aspects of lipase immobilization on nanomaterials. Biotechnology and applied biochemistry 64(4): 496-508.‏
  12. Fritea L, Banica F, Costea TO, Moldovan L, Dobjanschi L, et al. (2021) Metal nanoparticles and carbon- based nanomaterials for improved performances of electrochemical (Bio) sensors with biomedical applications. Materials 14(21): 6319.‏
  13. Chen Y, Shafiq M, Liu M, Morsi Y, Mo X (2020) Advanced fabrication for electrospun three-dimensional nanofiber aerogels and scaffolds. Bioactive Materials 5(4): 963- 979.‏
  14. Rajendran S, Priya AK, Kumar PS, Hoang TK, Sekar K, et al. (2022) A critical and recent developments on adsorption technique for removal of heavy metals from wastewater-A review. Chemosphere 303: 135146.‏
  15. Giese EC, Silva DD, Costa AF, Almeida SG, Dussán KJ (2020) Immobilized microbial nanoparticles for biosorption. Critical reviews in biotechnology 40(5): 653-666.‏
  16. Najim AA, Radeef AY, al‐Doori I, Jabbar ZH (2024) Immobilization: the promising technique to protect and increase the efficiency of microorganisms to remove contaminants. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology.‏
  17. Mourdikoudis S, Kostopoulou A, LaGrow AP (2021) Magnetic nanoparticle composites: synergistic effects and applications. Advanced Science 8(12): 2004951.‏
  18. Huang J, Li Y, Orza A, Lu Q, Guo P, et al. (2016) Magnetic nanoparticle facilitated drug delivery for cancer therapy with targeted and image‐guided approaches. Advanced functional materials 26(22): 3818-3836.‏
  19. García-Merino B, Bringas E, Ortiz I (2022) Synthesis and applications of surface-modified magnetic nanoparticles: Progress and future prospects. Reviews in Chemical Engineering 38(7): 821-842.‏
  20. Yadollahpour A (2015) Magnetic nanoparticles in medicine: a review of synthesis methods and important characteristics. Orient J Chem 31: 271-277.‏
  21. Hammad M (2016) Biomedical applications of magnetic nanoparticles. University of Saarland, pp: 1-79.‏
  22. Khan K, Rehman S, Rahman HU, Khan Q (2014) Synthesis and application of magnetic nanoparticles. In: Gonzalez Estevez JM (Ed.), Nanomagnetism One Central Press (OCP), UK.‏
  23. Materón EM, Miyazaki CM, Carr O, Joshi N, Picciani PH, et al. (2021) Magnetic nanoparticles in biomedical applications: A review. Applied Surface Science Advances 6: 100163.‏
  24. Sirisha VL, Jain A, Jain A (2016) Enzyme immobilization: an overview on methods, support material, and applications of immobilized enzymes. Advances in food and nutrition research 79: 179-211.‏
  25. Najim AA, Ismail ZZ, Hummadi KK (2022) Enhanced Removal of the Xenobiotic Surfactant Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate from Actual Nondomestic Wastewaters Using Immobilized Mixed Bacterial Cells. Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Quarterly 36(1): 67-76.‏
  26. Cardoso VF, Francesko A, Ribeiro C, Bañobre‐López M, Martins P, et al. (2018) Advances in magnetic nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Advanced healthcare materials 7(5).‏
  27. Singh N, Dhanya BS, Verma ML (2020) Nano-immobilized biocatalysts and their potential biotechnological applications in bioenergy production. Materials Science for Energy Technologies 3: 808-824.‏
  28. Khizar S, Ben Halima H, Ahmad NM, Zine N, Errachid A, et al. (2020) Magnetic nanoparticles in microfluidic and sensing: From transport to detection. Electrophoresis 41(13-14): 1206-1224.‏
  29. Seenuvasan M, Vinodhini G, Malar CG, Balaji N, Kumar KS (2018) Magnetic nanoparticles: a versatile carrier for enzymes in bio‐processing sectors. IET nanobiotechnology 12(5): 535-548.‏
  30. Yildiz I (2016) Applications of magnetic nanoparticles in biomedical separation and purification. Nanotechnology Reviews 5(3): 331-340.‏
  31. Nekounam H, Babaei M, Kisomi MF, Pourkhodadad S, Mahmoodi N, et al. (2022) Application of functional magnetic nanoparticles for separation of target materials: a review. Current Nanoscience 18(5): 554- 570.‏
  32. Estelrich J, Escribano E, Queralt J, Busquets MA (2015) Iron oxide nanoparticles for magnetically-guided and magnetically-responsive drug delivery. International journal of molecular sciences 16(4): 8070-8101.‏
  33. Turcheniuk K, Tarasevych AV, Kukhar VP, Boukherroub R, Szunerits S (2013) Recent advances in surface chemistry strategies for the fabrication of functional iron oxide based magnetic nanoparticles. Nanoscale 5(22): 10729- 10752.‏
  34. Kumar CS, Mohammad F (2011) Magnetic nanomaterials for hyperthermia-based therapy and controlled drug delivery. Advanced drug delivery reviews 63(9): 789- 808.‏
  35. Chen W, Zhou S, Ge L, Wu W, Jiang X (2018) Translatable high drug loading drug delivery systems based on biocompatible polymer nanocarriers. Biomacromolecules 19(6): 1732-1745.‏
  36. Yetisgin AA, Cetinel S, Zuvin M, Kosar A, Kutlu O (2020) Therapeutic nanoparticles and their targeted delivery applications. Molecules 25(9): 2193.‏
  37. Mukherjee A, Waters AK, Kalyan P, Achrol AS, Yenugonda VM (2019) Lipid–polymer hybrid nanoparticles as a next-generation drug delivery platform: state of the art, emerging technologies, and perspectives. International journal of nanomedicine 14: 1937-1952.‏
  38. Kumar CS, Thangam R, Mary SA, Kannan PR, Arun G, et al. (2020) Targeted delivery and apoptosis induction of trans-resveratrol-ferulic acid loaded chitosan coated folic acid conjugate solid lipid nanoparticles in colon cancer cells. Carbohydrate polymers 231: 115682.‏
  39. Li F, Qin Y, Lee J, Liao H, Wang N, et al. (2020) Stimuli- responsive nano-assemblies for remotely controlled drug delivery. Journal of controlled release 322: 566- 592.‏
  40. Santosh GL, Sandeep SB, Jagriti G, Barick KC, Hassan PA (2020) Immobilization of protein on Fe3O4 nanoparticles for magnetic hyperthermia application. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 166: 851-860.
  41. Govarthanan M, Jeon CH, Jeon YH, Kwon JH, Bae H, et al. (2020) Non-toxic nano approach for wastewater treatment using Chlorella vulgaris exopolysaccharides immobilized in iron-magnetic nanoparticles. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 162: 1241-1249.‏
  42. Liu M, Ye Y, Ye J, Gao T, Wang D, et al. (2023). Recent advances of magnetite (Fe3O4)-based magnetic materials in catalytic applications. Magnetochemistry 9(4): 110.‏
  43. Darwesh OM, Matter IA, Eida MF (2019) Development of peroxidase enzyme immobilized magnetic nanoparticles for bioremediation of textile wastewater dye. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7(1): 102805.‏
  44. Patel SK, Gupta RK, Kim SY, Kim IW, Kalia VC, et al. (2021) Rhus vernicifera laccase immobilization on magnetic nanoparticles to improve stability and its potential application in bisphenol A degradation. Indian Journal of Microbiology 61(1): 45-54.‏
  45. Ghorbani-Vaghei R, Veisi H, Aliani MH, Mohammadi P, Karmakar B (2021) Alginate modified magnetic nanoparticles to immobilization of gold nanoparticles as an efficient magnetic nanocatalyst for reduction of 4-nitrophenol in water. Journal of Molecular Liquids 327: 114868.‏
  46. Sabit DA, Ebrahim SE, Jabbar ZH (2023) Immobilization of 0D CuO/ZnFe2O4 nanoparticles onto 2D BiOBr nanoplates as dual S-scheme heterostructure for boosting photocatalytic oxidation of levofloxacin in wastewater: Magnetic reusability and mechanism insights. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 443: 114849.‏
  47. Jabbar ZH, Graimed BH, Okab AA, Ammar SH, Najim AA, et al. (2024) Preparation of magnetic Fe3O4/g-C3N4 nanosheets immobilized with hierarchal Bi2WO6 for boosted photocatalytic reaction towards antibiotics in aqueous solution: S-type charge migration route. Diamond and Related Materials 142: 110817.
  48. Jabbar ZH, Graimed BH, Ammar SH, Sabit DA, Najim AA, et al. (2024) The latest progress in the design and application of semiconductor photocatalysis systems for degradation of environmental pollutants in wastewater: Mechanism insight and theoretical calculations. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 173: 108153.
  49. Radeef AY, Ismail ZZ (2022) Reclamation of actual automobile wash wastewater combined with energy recovery in 3D-microbial fuel cell packed with acid- activated multi walled carbon nanotubes coated anode. Separation and Purification Technology 286: 120455.
  50. Liu Y, Zhang X, Li H, Peng L, Qin Y, et al. (2021) Porous α-Fe2O3 nanofiber combined with carbon nanotube as anode to enhance the bioelectricity generation for microbial fuel cell. Electrochimica Acta 391: 138984.
  51. Radeef AY, Mohammed AK, Salih AB, Najim AA (2023) Polyethylene terephthalate cap‐based bioreactors for combined domestic and dye wastewater treatment. Coloration Technology.
  52. Su JF, Gao YC, Liang DH, Wei L, Bai XC, et al. (2019) Multifunctional sugar-cube-like Fe3O4@ Cu/PVA biomaterials for enhanced removal of nitrate and Mn (II) from moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR). Water Supply 19(6): 1643-1652.
  53. Ibrahim HAH, Cihangir N, Idil N, Aracagök YD (2024) Adsorption of azo dye by biomass and immobilized Yarrowia lipolytica; equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 40(5): 1-12.
  54. Ghadami F, Valian M, Atoof F, Dawi EA, Miranzadeh MB, et al. (2024) Response surface methodology for optimization of operational parameters to remove tetracycline from contaminated water by new magnetic Ho2MoO6/Fe2O3 nano adsorbent. Results in Engineering 21: 101746.
  55. Yang Y, Du Z, Xia Y, Ou K, Tang Y, et al. (2024) Hydrogen adsorption on α-Fe2O3 nanorods: A molecular dynamics simulation study. Computational Materials Science 239: 112965.
  56. Bilal M, Zhao Y, Rasheed T, Iqbal HM (2018) Magnetic nanoparticles as versatile carriers for enzymes immobilization: A review. International journal of biological macromolecules 120: 2530-2544.‏
  57. Darwesh, Osama M (2019) Enzymes immobilization onto magnetic nanoparticles to improve industrial and environmental applications. Methods in Enzymology 630: 481-502.
  58. Katouzian I, Jafari SM (2016) Nano-encapsulation as a promising approach for targeted delivery and controlled release of vitamins. Trends in Food Science & Technology 53: 34-48.‏
  59. Nemati S, Kim SJ, Shin YM, Shin H (2019) Current progress in application of polymeric nanofibers to tissue engineering. Nano convergence 6(1): 36.‏
  60. Suo H, Xu L, Xue Y, Qiu X, Huang H, et al. (2020) Ionic liquids-modified cellulose coated magnetic nanoparticles for enzyme immobilization: Improvement of catalytic performance. Carbohydrate polymers 234: 115914.
More from this journal

Cite this article

BibTeX
APA
RIS
@article{jabbar2024,
  title   = {Nanotechnology in Immobilization: Harnessing the Magnetic
Nanoparticles for Medicine and Remediation Applications},
  author  = {Jabbar ZH},
  journal = {Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access},
  year    = {2024},
  volume  = {9},
  number  = {2},
  doi     = {10.23880/nnoa-16000305}
}
Jabbar ZH (2024). Nanotechnology in Immobilization: Harnessing the Magnetic
Nanoparticles for Medicine and Remediation Applications. Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.23880/nnoa-16000305
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Nanotechnology in Immobilization: Harnessing the Magnetic
Nanoparticles for Medicine and Remediation Applications
AU  - Jabbar ZH
JO  - Nanomedicine & Nanotechnology Open Access
PY  - 2024
VL  - 9
IS  - 2
DO  - 10.23880/nnoa-16000305
ER  -