Abstract

The study conducted a comparative assessment of access to water and sanitation services in selected urban centres of Cross River State, Nigeria. It specifically examined household access to water, including the quantity collected per trip and accessibility challenges during peak hours. It evaluated households’ water storage capacity, the amount of water stored daily, and the treatment methods used. The study also quantified household sanitation and hygiene levels and explored community participation in water and sanitation initiatives. Data collection involved administering 400 structured questionnaires to households across three selected Local Government Areas (LGAs) using a systematic sampling technique. Boreholes were the primary water source for 79% of households across all LGAs, reflecting widespread reliance on groundwater due to inadequate public water infrastructure. Although over 60% of households accessed water within two minutes, 21% still travelled more than four minutes, highlighting unequal access. Nearly half (49.1%) of households collected over 200 litres per trip, with Calabar recording the highest proportion at 52.2%. Despite 61.9% of households reporting steady water access, a significant 79.0% still faced challenges, mainly related to distance (48.1%). To cope with peak-hour demand, 62.6% resorted to alternative, less crowded water sources, while 27.6% arrived early to avoid queues. Notably, even though 61.0% lived within two minutes of a water source, many reported difficulties accessing water. Water storage practices showed that 73.0% of households used plastic or metal containers and drums due to their affordability, durability, and capacity. Most households (69.1%) stored between 125-150 litre containers daily, with 73.1% storing water indoors, showing concerns for water safety. However, only 37.5% treated their water before drinking. Among those who did, chlorination was most common (20.5%), followed by filtration (10.4%) and boiling (6.7%). The majority (51.9%) cleaned their water storage containers after each use, though weekly (27.6%) and annual cleaning (20.5%) were less frequent.