Beta Fulltext view is in preview — article structure may vary. Browse all articles
Contents
Virology & Immunology Journal Research Article 10 min read

Cats and Animals Product as a Source of Transmission Toxoplasmosis

Suwanti LT*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2577-4379  10.23880/vij-16000149  Received: February 19, 2018  Published: March 12, 2018
 — views
 34 references
PDF
Keywords
Animal Product Cat Environment Livestock Toxoplasma Gondii
Abstract

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease caused by an intracellular protozoal infection, Toxoplasma gondii. Cats and Felidae are definitive host and non felidae mammals and birds as intermediate host. Worldwide, domestic cats are estimated to be infected with ranging from 30 to 40%. Cats produce and shed oocysts and contaminate the environment for long time. Sporulated oocyst is infectious stage for livestock and product (meat, milk and eggs) of infected livestocks can act as a source of T. gondii infection.

Introduction

Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by an intracellular protozoal infection, Toxoplasma gondii. The disease is zoonotic, humans and all warm-blooded animals, birds and mammals, can become infected. Cats and other members of the Felidae as definitive host and the other animals include human as intermediate host. Felidae shed oocysts that can widespread and contaminate the environment [1]. Life cycle T. gondii was described by Dubey et al., Hill and Dubey and Syblay et al. [2, 3, 4]. T. godii belongs to phylum Apicomplexa. There are three infectious stages: tachyzoites, bardyzoites and sporulated oocyst. Individual was infected by ingest that stages. Tachyzoites is a rapidly dividing invasive stage that found in the condition of acute infection. Bradyzoitesis a slowly dividing stage which maintain chronic infection and its clustered to form a cyst in a host cell and called tissue cyst. Oocyst is the result of sexual development in the cat`s intestine and is shed along with cat feces, and it so called an environmental stage. Oocysts undergo sporogony in the environment to yield sporozoites. Individual can infected T. gondii by three infectious stages. Transmission to human is mainly through food by ingestion of sporulated oocysts or tissue cysts or tachyzoites contained in meat or the other animals products. The consumption of undercooked, raw or cured meat is a major mode of transmission of Toxoplasmosis to humans [5]. Although, mostly, infection in immunocompetent individuals, is asymptomatic or it does not cause serious illness, but in congenitally infection it cause any problem [6]. The clinical manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis are ranging from mild to severe such as visual impairment, retinochoroiditis, blindness, hydrocephalus or microcephaly, intracarnial calcificasion, seizures, mental retardation, abortion and stillbirth [7, 8].

Cats as a Source of Transmission

As the definitive hosts of T. gondii, Felidae have an important role in epidemiology of the disease because the sexsual reproduction only take place in intestine of felines [2]. Most feline were infected through ingestion of infected tissue cysts in infected pray but rarely by sporulated oocysts [9, 10]. Cats shed oocysts from days 4- 11 post-infection [4]. Among members of Felidae, domestic cats are probably the major source of contamination since oocyst formation is greatest in domestic cats may excrete millions of oocysts after ingesting only one bradyzoite or one tissue cyst, and many tissue cysts may be present in one infected mouse [11]. Oocysts take 1-5 days to sporulate in the environment. Sporulated oocysts survive for long periods under most ordinary environmental conditions. In moist soil, its can survive for months and even years. Oocysts also resistant to disinfectants and freezing, respectively, in native cat feces and uncovered for 46 days and in covered soil for 334 days and for 18 months in soil buried at the depth of 3-9 cm and in -21°C for 28 days [12]. Many researchers have reported epidemiology of T gondii infection in domestic cats both stray and household cats. The seroprevalance of toxoplasmosis in domestic cats is estimated worldwide with ranging from 30 to 40% [9]. In Bangkok, T. gondii was detected in 72 (4.8%) of 1,490 stray cats in 56% (28/50) of areas [13]. The prevalence rate of cat toxoplasmosis in various regions of Iran ranged from 1.2% to 89.2% [14]. According to Castillo-Morales et al, domestic cats from the Tropic Mexico were detected toxoplasma infection in acute and chronic and the prevalence was very high, more than 70% [15]. From Bali Indonesia, Subrata et al found 17.5% cat`s feses in Bali positive with oocyst T. gondii [16]. The Seroprevalence feline toxoplasmosis in the other county, respectively, was 48.4% in Finland, 60.8% in Estonia and 12.08% in public shelter in Rio de Jenairo Brasil [17, 18, 19].

Animals Product as a Source of T. gondii Infection

In the life cycle of T. gondii, non-felidae mammals and all birds act as intermediate hosts [2]. Livestock are primarily infected with T. gondii by oocysts. Developing T. gondii in intermediate host was described by Dubey [20]. After ingestion sporulated oocyst, sporozoites release from oocysts and penetrate intestinal tissues, transform to tachyzoites, multiply locally, and are disseminated in the body via blood or lymph. After a few multiplication cycles, tachyzoites give rise to bradyzoites in a variety of tissues as tissue cysts. The tissue cyst is located primarily in the central nervous system (CNS), eye and skeletal muscle and heart [21]. The Infected livestock can store T. gondii tissue cysts during its lifetime, indicating potentially significant risks to public health if their meat is consumed raw or undercooked [22]. Oral transmission through ingestion of tissue cysts can lead to the spread of T. gondii infection through the food chain in carnivorous or omnivorous (include human) [4]. Tissue cysts of T. gondii are most frequently observed in tissues (meat product) of infected pigs, sheep, and goats. Several epidemiological studies that showed some livestock were infected T. gondii, for examples, Seroprevalence of T. gondii infection livestock in Slovakia was 25%, ranges from 0.1% to 92% in Italy, 17.68% of goat and sheep in Central Ethiopia, in cattle in Brazil ranges from 1.03 to 71% Albuquerque et al and Hamilton et al detected DNA of T. gondii in heart tissue and found that 21% of pigs, 16% of sheep and 23% of goats tested in west Indies were positive of the Type III genotype of T. gondii [22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. Role chicken in the epidemiology of T. gondii infection was reviewed by Dubey [1]. And the prevalence of the parasite T. gondii was found very high in raised commercial free-range chickens, (30-50%), moreover, in backyards system (up to 100%) [1]. Dubey, Millar et al found that Free-ranged chickens raised for egg production proved to be the most exposed group to the T. gondii infection [27]. Mufasirin and Suwanti detected 16.7% of egg of free range chicken in Surabaya Indonesia infected with viable T. gondii [28]. Survival of tissue cysts of Toxoplasma gondii in food were reviewed by Tenter AM [21]. Bradyzoites of T. gondii in tissue cyst are resistant to digestive enzymes, therefore, host will infected if ingestion of viable tissue cysts. Tissue cyst also resistant to changes in temperature, it remain infectious in refrigerated (1-4°C) car casses or minced meat for up to 3 weeks, at 60°C for about 4 min and at 50°C for about 10 min and tissue cysts are killed at temperatures of -12°C or lower and by heating up to 67°C. Evidence that Tachyzoites Toxoplasma gondii has been found in milk and its ability in transmition infection has been documented by several researchers. Powell et al, Costa and Langoni, respectively reported, that cats and rat infected with T. gondii, their milk contained viable and transmitable T. gondii [29, 30]. Conducted research and reported that T. gondii lives can be excreted in goat's milk and can survive in fresh cheese, while Bezerra et al and Ossani, et al. found, respectively, 6.05% and 30.95% of the milk samples of naturally infected goats and dairy ewes were positive with T. gondii [20, 31, 32, 33, 34].

Conclusions and Recommendations

Cats and livestock, both, play a role in the transmission of toxoplasmosis. Oocyst that excreted in cat feces act as a source of transmission both in humans and livestock. Infected Livestock in meat, milk or eggs contain tissue cysts that are as a source of transmission for carnivorous and humans. Therefore, it is recommended to keep the environment free from oocysts,, Pet Animals (Cats) must be healthy and kept indoor, Farm and the sheds must be free from oocyst, cats and pray animals, Animals product must be prossed to inactivate viable Toxoplasma.

References

  1. Dubey JP (2009) History of the Discovery of the Life Cycle of Toxoplasma Gondii. Int J Parasitol 39(8): 877-882.
  2. Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Speer CA (1998) Structures of Toxoplasma gondii Tachyzoites, Bradyzoites, and Sporozoites and Biology and Development of Tissue Cysts. CMR 11(2): 267-299.
  3. Hill DE, Dubey JP (2016) Toxoplasma gondii as a parasite in food: analysis and control. Microbiol Spectrum 4(4).
  4. Sibley LD, Khan A, Ajioka JW, Rosenthal BM (2009) Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in animals and humans. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364(1530): 2749-2761.
  5. Paredes GFD, Ortega-Pacheco A, Rosado-Aguilar JA, Acosta-Viana KY, Guzmán-Marín E, et al. (2016) Toxoplasma gondii in Meat for Human Consumption- A Brief Review of the Most Described Strategies for Its Detection and Quantification. Chepter 8: 215-240.
  6. Dalimi A, Abdoli A (2012) Latent Toxoplasmosis and Human. Iran J Parasitol 7(1): 1-17.
  7. Alvarado-Esquivel C, Pacheco-Vega SJ, Salcedo-Jaquez M, Sánchez-Anguiano LF, Hernández-Tinoco J, et al. (2015) Stillbirth history and Toxoplasma gondii infection in women attending public health centers in a northern Mexican City. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 5(2): 164-171.
  8. Mc Auley JB (2014) Congenital Toxoplasmosis. Pediatric Infect Dis Soc 3(1): S30-S35.
  9. Elmore SA, Jones JL, Conrad PA, Patton S, Lindsay DS, et al. (2010) Toxoplasma gondii: epidemiology, feline clinical aspects, and prevention. Trends in Parasitology 26(4): 190-196.
  10. Wilson CB, Nizet V, Maldonado YA, Remington JS, Klein JO (2011) Remington and Klein's Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant, 8th Edition. Elsevier Saunders.
  11. Lindsay DS, Weiss LM (2004) Opportunistic Infections: Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, and Microsporidia. Kluwer Academic Publisher. Pp: 1-20.
  12. Jones JL, Dubey JP (2012) Foodborne Toxoplasmosis. Clin Infec Dis 55(6): 845-851.
  13. Jittapalapong S, Inpankaew T, Pinyopanuwat N, Chimnoi W, Kengradomkij C, et al. (2010) Epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection of stray cats in Bangkok, Thailand. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 41(1): 13-18.
  14. Rahimi MT, Daryani A, Sarvi S, Shokri A, Ahmadpour E, et al. (2015) Cats and Toxoplasma gondii: A systematic review and meta-analysis in Iran. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 82(1): 823.
  15. Castillo-Morales VJ, Viana KYA, Guzmán-Marín ES, Jiménez-Coello M, Segura-Correa JC, et al. (2012) Prevalence and Risk Factors of Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Domestic Cats from the Tropics of Mexico Using Serological and Molecular Tests. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases 2012: 6.
  16. Subrata IM, Suryadhi NT, Mantik-Astawa N, Damriyasa IM (2015) Epidemiological and Molecular Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii In Faecal Samples Of Cats Obtained From House Of MaternalIn Bali. Bali Med J 4(2): 68-75.
  17. Jokelainen P, Simola O, Rantanen E, Näreaho A, Lohi H, et al. (2012) Feline toxoplasmosis in Finland: cross-sectional epidemiological study and case series study. J Vet Diagn Invest 24(6): 1115-1124.
  18. Must K, Lassen B, Jokelainen P (2015) Seroprevalence of and Risk Factors for Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Cats in Estonia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 15(10): 597-601.
  19. Bolais PF, Vignoles P, Pereira PF, Keim R, Aroussi A, et al. (2017) Toxoplasma gondii survey in cats from two environments of the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil by Modified Agglutination Test on sera and filter-paper. Parasites & Vectors 10: 88.
  20. Dubey JP (2004) Toxoplasmosis-a waterborne zoonosis. Vet Parasitol 126: 57-72.
  21. Tenter AM, Heckeroth AR, Weiss LM (2000) Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans. Int J Parasitol 30(12-13): 1217-1258.
  22. Hamilton CM, Kelly PJ, Bartley PM, Burrells A, Porco A, et al. (2015) Toxoplasma gondii in livestock in St. Kitts and Nevis, West Indies. Parasites & Vectors 8: 166.
  23. Luptakova L, Petrovova E, Mazensky D, Valencakova A, Balent P (2012) Toxoplasmosis in Livestock and Pet Animals in Slovakia.
  24. Rinaldi L, Scala A (2008) Toxoplasmosis in livestock in Italy: an epidemiological update. Parassitologia 50(1-2): 59-61.
  25. Gebremedhin EZ, Abdurahaman M, Hadush T, Tessema TS (2014) Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats slaughtered for human consumption in Central Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes 7: 696.
  26. Albuquerque GR, Munhoz AD, Teixeira M, Flausino W, Medeiros SM (2011) Risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in dairy cattle, State of Rio de Janeiro. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 31(4): 287-290.
  27. Millar PR, Alves FMX, Teixeira VQ, Vicente RT, Menezes EM, et al. (2012) Occurrence of infection with Toxoplasma gondii and factors associated with transmission in broiler chickens and laying hens in different raising systems. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira 32(3): 231-236.
  28. Mufasirin, Suwanti LT (2008) Detection of Toxoplasma gondii on the local chicken eggs sold as the mixture of traditional medicine in surabaya using biological test. Media Kedokteran Hewan 24(1): 9-14.
  29. Powell CC, Brewer M, Lappin MR (2001) Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in the milk of experimentally infected lactating cats. Vet Parasitol 102(1-2): 29-33.
  30. Costa VM, Langoni H (2010) Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in the milk of experimentally infected Wistar female rats. J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis 16 (2): 368-374.
  31. Bezerra MJ, Kim PC, Moraes ÉP, Sá SG, Albuquerque PP, et al. (2015) Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in the milk of naturally infected goats in the Northeast of Brazil. Transbound Emerg Dis 62(4): 421-424.
  32. Ossani RA, Borges HAT, Souza AP, Sartor AA, Miletti LC, et al. (2017) Toxoplasma gondii in milk of naturally infected dairy ewes on west mesoregion of Santa Catarina state, Brazil. Arq Bras Med Vet Zootec 69 (5): 1294-1300.
  33. Dubey JP (2010) Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Chickens (Gallus domesticus): Prevalence, Clinical Disease, Diagnosis and Public Health Significance. Zoonoses Public Health 57(1): 60-73.
  34. Dubey JP, Verma SK, Ferreira LR, Oliveira S, Cassinelli AB, et al. (2014) Detection and survival of Toxoplasma gondii in milk and cheese from experimentally infected goats. J Food Prot 77(10): 1747-1753.
More from this journal

Cite this article

BibTeX
APA
RIS
@article{suwanti2018,
  title   = {Cats and Animals Product as a Source of Transmission Toxoplasmosis},
  author  = {Suwanti LT},
  journal = {Virology & Immunology Journal},
  year    = {2018},
  volume  = {2},
  number  = {3},
  doi     = {10.23880/vij-16000149}
}
Suwanti LT (2018). Cats and Animals Product as a Source of Transmission Toxoplasmosis. Virology & Immunology Journal, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.23880/vij-16000149
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Cats and Animals Product as a Source of Transmission Toxoplasmosis
AU  - Suwanti LT
JO  - Virology & Immunology Journal
PY  - 2018
VL  - 2
IS  - 3
DO  - 10.23880/vij-16000149
ER  -