Beta Fulltext view is in preview — article structure may vary. Browse all articles
Contents
Haematology International Journal Research Article 26 min read

Impact of Malaria on Hematocrit Levels in HIV-Infected Individuals: A Comprehensive Review

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu* and Getrude Uzoma Obeagu*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2578-501X  10.23880/hij-16000231  Received: January 27, 2024  Published: February 13, 2024
 — views
 98 references
PDF
Keywords
Malaria Hematocrit Levels HIV Co-infection Anemia Immune Response Pathogenesis Diagnosis Treatment
Abstract

His comprehensive review explores the intricate relationship between malaria infection and hematocrit levels in individuals co-infected with HIV. Malaria and HIV, both prevalent in resource-limited regions, exhibit a synergistic impact on the immune system, leading to exacerbated anemia and subsequent reductions in hematocrit levels. The interplay between these infections involves complex immune responses, compromising the ability to combat anemia effectively. Accurate diagnosis presents challenges due to overlapping symptoms, necessitating integrated diagnostic approaches. Treatment strategies, including antiretroviral therapy and antimalarial drugs, must be carefully chosen to avoid adverse interactions. Preventive measures, such as malaria prevention methods and nutritional interventions, play a crucial role in mitigating the risk of co-infection and anemia. The review emphasizes the need for a multidimensional approach in both diagnosis and treatment to enhance the overall well-being of individuals facing the complex challenge of malaria and HIV co-infection.

Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu1* and Getrude Uzoma Obeagu2

Introduction

Malaria and HIV/AIDS are two major global health challenges that disproportionately affect populations in resource-limited regions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. While each disease poses significant threats to the immune system and overall health, the co-infection of malaria and HIV introduces complex interactions that have far-reaching consequences [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. This review focuses on understanding the impact of malaria on hematocrit levels in individuals living with HIV, shedding light on the intricate relationship between these infections and their combined effects on anemia. Malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted through the bite of infected Anopheles mosquitoes, remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. On the other hand, HIV, the virus responsible for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), primarily targets CD4+ T cells, compromising the immune system’s ability to mount an effective defense against various pathogens [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23].

One of the hallmark manifestations of malaria is anemia, characterized by a reduction in red blood cell count and hematocrit levels. The coexistence of HIV and malaria complicates this scenario, as both infections individually contribute to anemia, and their synergistic effects often result in more severe and persistent hematological abnormalities [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Understanding the immune responses and pathogenesis involved in the co-infection is crucial for unraveling the mechanisms behind the impact on hematocrit levels. Both malaria and HIV exhibit distinct immunological challenges, and their concurrent presence exacerbates the compromise of the immune system, further contributing to anemia. This review aims to delve into the complexities of these immune responses and their implications for hematocrit levels in co-infected individuals.

Diagnosing and managing anemia in the context of dual infections present unique challenges. The symptoms of malaria-induced anemia can closely mimic those associated with HIV-related anemia, necessitating integrated diagnostic approaches for accurate and timely intervention. Additionally, the potential interactions between antiretroviral and antimalarial drugs must be carefully considered in the treatment paradigm [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43]. Preventive measures play a pivotal role in mitigating the risk of co-infection and subsequent anemia. Integrating malaria prevention methods, such as the use of insecticide-treated bed nets and antimalarial prophylaxis, into HIV care programs can significantly contribute to overall health outcomes [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52].

Malaria and Hematocrit Levels

Malaria, a mosquito-borne infectious disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, has long been associated with hematological complications, particularly anemia. Hematocrit, the proportion of blood that is cellular, is a key indicator of the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity and is often affected during malaria infections. This relationship between malaria and hematocrit levels is a complex interplay influenced by various factors, including the species of Plasmodium involved, the severity and duration of infection, and the host’s immune response [53, 54]. Malaria is known to induce anemia, characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells (RBCs) and, consequently, a reduction in hematocrit levels [55]. The parasites invade and multiply within RBCs, leading to their destruction, a process known as hemolysis. The release of hemoglobin from lysed RBCs contributes to the clinical manifestation of anemia, impacting hematocrit. Different species of Plasmodium, such as P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. knowlesi, exhibit varying degrees of virulence and preferences for infecting different stages of RBCs. P. falciparum, in particular, is associated with severe malaria and more profound hematocrit reductions due to its ability to infect RBCs of all ages.

The severity and duration of malaria infection play crucial roles in determining the extent of hematocrit alterations [56]. Severe and prolonged infections can lead to a higher parasite burden, increased hemolysis, and consequently, a more pronounced decline in hematocrit levels. The host’s immune response to malaria further complicates the relationship with hematocrit levels. In an attempt to control the infection, the immune system may contribute to the destruction of both infected and uninfected RBCs, exacerbating anemia. Additionally, inflammatory responses during malaria infections can suppress erythropoiesis, the process of RBC production, influencing hematocrit levels. In regions where malaria is endemic, coexisting health conditions, such as malnutrition and helminth infections, can synergistically impact hematocrit levels. Malaria’s association with anemia becomes particularly concerning in populations where nutritional deficiencies are prevalent.

Immune Response and Pathogenesis

Understanding the immune response and pathogenesis of co-infection with malaria and HIV is crucial in unraveling the complexities that lead to alterations in hematocrit levels. Both diseases, independently known for their impact on the immune system, synergistically contribute to an intricate interplay that manifests in severe anemia, significantly influencing hematocrit levels [57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. Upon the bite of an infected mosquito, Plasmodium parasites enter the bloodstream and encounter the host’s innate immune defenses. Cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells recognize and attempt to eliminate the parasites through phagocytosis [56]. Effector cells, including T lymphocytes and B cells, play a crucial role in the adaptive immune response against malaria. Specific antibodies are produced, and T cells orchestrate the destruction of infected red blood cells (RBCs). However, this immune response can inadvertently contribute to anemia by causing the destruction of both infected and uninfected RBCs.

HIV primarily targets CD4+ T cells, which are central to orchestrating immune responses. The depletion of these cells compromises the overall immune system, impairing the ability to mount an effective defense against various pathogens, including Plasmodium parasites [62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. HIV infection leads to chronic inflammation, affecting multiple immune pathways. This chronic inflammation can contribute to the dysregulation of erythropoiesis, the process of RBC production, further exacerbating anemia [67, 68, 69, 70, 71]. HIV-infected individuals often experience higher parasite burdens during malaria infections due to their compromised immune system. This increased parasitemia intensifies the destruction of RBCs and exacerbates anemia [72, 73, 74, 75, 76]. The immunosuppressive effects of both HIV and malaria synergize, creating a conducive environment for persistent infections. This prolonged immune activation and suppression contribute to sustained anemia, impacting hematocrit levels [77, 78, 79, 80, 81]. Both malaria and HIV infections result in the dysregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6. These cytokines, while crucial for immune responses, can negatively affect hematopoiesis, leading to decreased RBC production and contributing to anemia [82, 83, 84, 85, 86]. Chronic inflammation in HIV and malaria co-infection can suppress the production of erythropoietin, a hormone essential for stimulating RBC production in the bone marrow. This suppression further hampers the recovery from anemia [87, 88, 89, 90, 91].

Diagnosis Challenges

Diagnosing anemia in individuals co-infected with malaria and HIV presents unique challenges due to overlapping clinical features, intricate interactions between the two diseases, and the potential influence of coexisting conditions. Accurate and timely diagnosis is crucial for initiating appropriate interventions [92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. The symptoms of anemia induced by malaria and HIV often overlap, including fatigue, weakness, and pallor. Distinguishing between the contributions of each infection to anemia based solely on clinical presentation can be challenging [97]. Malaria and HIV frequently coexist in regions where both diseases are endemic. Integrated diagnostic approaches are essential to differentiate the specific contributions of each infection to anemia accurately. This involves combining tests for malaria parasites and HIV antibodies to identify co- infected individuals [98]. Conventional malaria diagnostic tests, such as microscopy and rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), may have limitations in sensitivity and specificity, especially in low-level parasitemia common in HIV-infected individuals. Molecular techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), may be required for more accurate malaria diagnosis.

HIV can alter the immune responses to malaria, affecting the accuracy of diagnostic tests. Immunocompromised individuals may exhibit atypical presentations or lower levels of antibodies, potentially leading to false-negative results [97].

Individuals with HIV may have comorbidities or coinfections, such as bacterial or parasitic infections, influencing the hematologic profile. The presence of these additional factors can complicate the interpretation of anemia and may require a broader diagnostic approach [86]. In many regions where malaria and HIV are prevalent, healthcare infrastructure may be limited. The availability of diagnostic tools, skilled personnel, and access to reliable testing may pose challenges in achieving accurate and timely diagnoses [91]. Anemia in individuals with HIV is not solely attributed to malaria; other causes, such as iron deficiency, should be considered. Discriminating between different types of anemia is crucial for tailoring appropriate therapeutic interventions [97]. Malaria and HIV infections are dynamic, with fluctuations in parasitemia and viral load over time. Regular monitoring and follow-up are necessary to adapt diagnostic strategies and treatment plans based on the evolving status of each infection.

Treatment Strategies

The treatment of individuals co-infected with malaria and HIV requires a nuanced approach, considering the complexity of interactions between the two diseases and their impact on hematocrit levels. Management strategies involve addressing both infections simultaneously, mitigating anemia, and minimizing potential drug interactions. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV is a cornerstone in managing co-infection. Initiating and maintaining ART is crucial to control viral replication, preserve immune function, and improve overall health. Adherence to ART is paramount to prevent further immune compromise [96]. The selection of antimalarial drugs depends on the species of Plasmodium prevalent in the region and the severity of the infection. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are commonly recommended for uncomplicated malaria, while severe cases may require intravenous artesunate. The potential for drug interactions between antiretrovirals and antimalarials must be carefully considered. Some antiretrovirals, particularly those metabolized by the cytochrome P450 system, may interact with certain antimalarial drugs, impacting their efficacy or increasing the risk of adverse effects. Adequate nutrition is essential for individuals co-infected with malaria and HIV, as malnutrition can exacerbate anemia. Supplementation with iron, folic acid, and other micronutrients may be considered based on nutritional assessments [98].

In cases of severe anemia or malaria complications, blood transfusions may be necessary to rapidly restore hematocrit levels. However, the risks and benefits of transfusions, including the potential for transfusion-transmitted infections, should be carefully weighed. In regions where malaria is endemic, individuals with HIV should receive appropriate malaria prophylaxis to prevent new infections. This can include the use of antimalarial drugs, insecticide-treated bed nets, and other preventive measures.98 Regular screening for both malaria and HIV in at-risk populations is essential for early detection and prompt initiation of treatment. Routine monitoring of hematocrit levels should also be incorporated into healthcare protocols [91]. Co-infected individuals may have other concurrent infections, such as bacterial or parasitic infections. Tailoring treatment to address these coexisting conditions is crucial for comprehensive care and optimal outcomes. Patient education on the importance of treatment adherence, the risks of drug interactions, and preventive measures is essential. Ensuring that individuals are informed and engaged in their treatment plans can enhance overall treatment success.

Preventive Measures

Preventing malaria-induced anemia in individuals living with HIV requires a comprehensive and integrated approach that addresses the specific challenges posed by co-infection. These preventive measures aim to reduce the risk of new infections, manage existing infections, and promote overall health. Individuals with HIV living in malaria-endemic regions should receive appropriate antimalarial prophylaxis. The choice of prophylactic drugs depends on the local prevalence of drug-resistant strains and potential interactions with antiretroviral medications [92]. Intermittent preventive treatment (IPT) involves the administration of antimalarial drugs at scheduled intervals, regardless of whether the individual is known to be infected. This strategy is particularly relevant in pregnant women with HIV to prevent malaria-related complications. Promoting the distribution and proper use of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) is crucial in malaria prevention. Sleeping under ITNs reduces the risk of mosquito bites, thereby decreasing the likelihood of new malaria infections. Implementing environmental measures to control mosquito populations, such as the use of larvicides and insecticide spraying, contributes to reducing malaria transmission. This is especially important in areas where both malaria and HIV are prevalent [98]. Routine screening for both malaria and HIV in at-risk populations is fundamental. Early detection of infections allows for prompt initiation of treatment, preventing the progression of disease and minimizing the impact on hematocrit levels [96].

Integrated diagnostic approaches that simultaneously test for both malaria and HIV ensure a comprehensive understanding of an individual’s health status, enabling timely interventions.99 Implementing health education programs is essential to raise awareness about the risks of co-infection, the importance of preventive measures, and the significance of regular healthcare check-ups. Informed individuals are more likely to adopt and adhere to preventive strategies. Initiating and maintaining antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a key preventive measure. By suppressing HIV replication and preserving immune function, ART helps individuals better resist new infections and reduces the risk of complications, including malaria- induced anemia [98]. Adequate nutrition is essential for preventing anemia. Micronutrient supplementation, including iron and folic acid, can contribute to maintaining optimal hematocrit levels. However, the balance between addressing nutritional deficiencies and preventing iron overload should be carefully managed. Pregnant women with HIV should receive IPTp as part of antenatal care. This strategy involves the administration of antimalarial drugs to prevent malaria-related complications during pregnancy.

Engaging communities in preventive efforts fosters collective responsibility. Community-based initiatives, such as health education campaigns and distribution programs for bed nets and antimalarial drugs, can contribute to the success of preventive measures.

Conclusion

The co-infection of malaria and HIV poses a significant public health challenge, especially concerning its impact on hematocrit levels and the development of anemia. This comprehensive review has explored various facets of this intricate relationship, emphasizing the need for a multidimensional approach in understanding, diagnosing, and treating individuals facing the dual burden of these infectious diseases. The immune response and pathogenesis in co-infected individuals reveal a complex interplay that not only compromises the immune system but also exacerbates anemia, leading to profound consequences on hematocrit levels. Challenges in diagnosis arise from overlapping symptoms, necessitating integrated approaches to distinguish the specific contributions of each infection accurately.

References

  1. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Chukwueze CM, Ikpenwa JN, Ramos GF (2022) Evaluation of Protein C, Protein S and Fibrinogen of Pregnant Women with Malaria in Owerri Metropolis. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(2): 1-9.
  2. Obeagu EI, Ibeh NC, Nwobodo HA, Ochei KC, Iwegbulam CP (2017) Haematological indices of malaria patients coinfected with HIV in Umuahia. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 3(5): 100-104.
  3. Opeyemi AA, Obeagu EI (2023) Regulations of malaria in children with human immunodeficiency virus infection: A review. Medicine 102(46): e36166.
  4. Obeagu EI, Chijioke UO, Ekelozie IS (2018) Malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDTs). Ann Clin Lab Res 6(4): 275.
  5. Obeagu EI, Alum EU, Ugwu OP (2023) Hepcidin: The Gatekeeper of Iron in Malaria Resistance. Newport International Journal Of Research In Medical Sciences 4(2): 1-8.
  6. Ogomaka IA, Obeagu EI (2019) Methods of Breast Feeding as Determinants of Malaria Infections among Babies in IMO State, Nigeria. International Journal of Medical Science and Dental Research 2(01): 17-24.
  7. Obeagu EI, Okwuanaso CB, Edoho SH, Obeagu GU (2022) Under-nutrition among HIV-exposed Uninfected Children: A Review of African Perspective. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(3): 120-127.
  8. Obeagu EI, Alum EU, Obeagu GU (2023) Factors associated with prevalence of HIV among youths: A review of Africa perspective. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 3(1): 13-18.
  9. Obeagu EI (2023) A Review of Challenges and Coping Strategies Faced by HIV/AIDS Discordant Couples. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 3(1): 7-12.
  10. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU (2023) An update on premalignant cervical lesions and cervical cancer screening services among HIV positive women. J Pub Health Nutri. 2023; 6 (2): 1-3.
  11. Ezeoru VC, Enweani IB, Ochiabuto O, Nwachukwu AC, Ogbonna US, et al. (2021) Prevalence of Malaria with Anaemia and HIV status in women of reproductive age in Onitsha, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(4): 10-19.
  12. Omo-Emmanuel UK, Chinedum OK, Obeagu EI (2017) Evaluation of laboratory logistics management information system in HIV/AIDS comprehensive health facilities in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 3(1): 21-38.
  13. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Musiimenta E, Bot YS, Hassan AO (2023) Factors contributing to low utilization of HIV counseling and testing services. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 9(2): 1-5.
  14. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Egba SI, Emeka-Obi OR (2023) Combatting Anemia in Pediatric Malaria: Effective Management Strategies. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 9(11): 1-7.
  15. Hassan AO, Oso OV, Obeagu EI, Adeyemo AT (2022) Malaria Vaccine: Prospects and Challenges. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(2): 22-40.
  16. Obeagu EI, Busari AI, Uduchi IO, Ogomaka IA, Ibekwe AM, et al. (2021) Age-Related Haematological Variations in Patients with Asymptomatic Malaria in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(42B): 218-224.
  17. Ogomaka IA, Obeagu EI (2021) Malaria in Pregnancy Amidst Possession of Insecticide Treated Bed Nets (ITNs) in Orlu LGA of Imo State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(41B): 380- 386.
  18. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU (2022) An update on survival of people living with HIV in Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri 5 (6): 129.
  19. Offie DC, Obeagu EI, Akueshi C, Njab JE, Ekanem EE, et al. (2021) Facilitators and barriers to retention in HIV care among HIV infected MSM attending Community Health Center Yaba, Lagos Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(52B): 10-19.
  20. Odo M, Ochei KC, Obeagu EI, Barinaadaa A, Eteng UE, et al. (2020) TB Infection Control in TB/HIV Settings in Cross River State, Nigeria: Policy Vs Practice. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 32(22): 101- 119.
  21. Obeagu EI, Eze VU, Alaeboh EA, Ochei KC (2016) Determination of haematocrit level and iron profile study among persons living with HIV in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. J BioInnovation 5: 464-471.
  22. Ifeanyi OE, Obeagu GU (2015) The values of prothrombin time among HIV positive patients in FMC owerri. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 4(4): 911-916.
  23. Izuchukwu IF, Ozims SJ, Agu GC, Obeagu EI, Onu I, et al. (2016) Knowledge of preventive measures and management of HIV/AIDS victims among parents in Umuna Orlu community of Imo state Nigeria. Int J Adv Res Biol Sci 3(10): 55-65.
  24. Ogbonna CO, Obeagu EI, Ufelle SA, Ogbonna LN (2021) Evaluation of haematological alterations in children infected by Plasmodium falciparum Species in Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(1): 38-45.
  25. Okorie HM, Obeagu EI, Obarezi HC, Anyiam AF (2019) Assessment of some inflammatory cytokines in malaria infected pregnant women in Imo State Nigeria. International Journal of Medical Science and Dental Research 2(1): 25-36.
  26. Okorie HM, Obeagu EI, Eze EN, Jeremiah ZA (2018) Assessment of some haematological parameters in malaria infected pregnant women in Imo state Nigeria. Int J Curr Res Biol Med 3(9): 1-4.
  27. Chinedu K, Takim AE, Obeagu EI, Chinazor UD, Eloghosa O, et al. (2017) HIV and TB co-infection among patients who used Directly Observed Treatment Short-course centres in Yenagoa, Nigeria. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci 12(4): 70-75.
  28. Oloro OH, Oke TO, Obeagu EI (2022) Evaluation of Coagulation Profile Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(3):110-119.
  29. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Nkwocha BC, Nwanna CA, Nwanjo HU, et al. (2016) Change in Lipid Peroxidation Marker (MDA) and Non enzymatic Antioxidants (VIT C & E) in HIV Seropositive Children in an Urban Community of Abia State Nigeria. J Bio. Innov 5(1): 24-30.
  30. Igwe CM, Obeagu IE, Ogbuabor OA (2022) Clinical characteristics of people living with HIV/AIDS on ART in 2014 at tertiary health institutions in Enugu, Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri 5(6): 130.
  31. Ifeanyi OE, Obeagu GU, Ijeoma FO, Chioma UI (2015) The values of activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) among HIV positive patients in FMC Owerri. Int J Curr Res Aca Rev 3: 139-144.
  32. Obiomah CF, Obeagu EI, Ochei KC, Swem CA, Amachukwu BO (2018) Hematological indices o HIV seropositive subjects in Nnamdi Azikiwe University teaching hospital (NAUTH), Nnewi. Ann Clin Lab Res 6(1):1-4.
  33. Emmanuel OUK, Ochei KC, Osuala EO, Obeagu EI, Onwuasoanya UF (2017) Impact of prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV on positivity rate in Kafanchan, Nigeria. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 3(2): 28-34.
  34. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Ezenwuba C, Agu GC, Amah H, et al. (2016) Antioxidant status of children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Owerri municipal council of Imo state. Int J Curr Res Chem Pharm Sci 3(8): 40-46.
  35. Okamgba OC, Nwosu DC, Nwobodo EI, Agu GC, Obeagu EI, et al. (2017) Iron Status of Pregnant and Post-Partum Women with Malaria Parasitaemia in Aba Abia State, Nigeria. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Research 5(4): 206.
  36. Anyiam AF, Arinze-Anyiam OC, Omosigho PO, Ibrahim M, Obeagu EI, et al. (2022) Blood Group, Genotype, Malaria, Blood Pressure and Blood Glucose Screening Among Selected Adults of a Community in Kwara State: Implications to Public Health. Asian Hematology Research Journal 6(3): 9-17.
  37. Obeagu EI, Nimo OM, Bunu UO, Ugwu OP, Alum EU (2023) Anaemia in children under five years: African perspectives. Int J Curr Res Biol Med 1:1-7.
  38. Aizaz M, Abbas FA, Abbas A, Tabassum S, Obeagu EI (2023) Alarming rise in HIV cases in Pakistan: Challenges and future recommendations at hand. Health Science Reports 6(8): e1450.
  39. Obeagu EI, Amekpor F, Scott GY (2023) An update of human immunodeficiency virus infection: Bleeding disorders. J Pub Health Nutri 6(1): 139.
  40. Obeagu EI, Scott GY, Amekpor F, Ofodile AC, Edoho SH, et al. (2022) Prevention of New Cases of Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Pragmatic Approaches of Saving Life in Developing Countries. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(3): 128-34.
  41. Walter O, Anaebo QB, Obeagu EI, Okoroiwu IL (2022) Evaluation of Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time and Prothrombin Time in HIV and TB Patients in Owerri Metropolis. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 34(3A): 29-34.
  42. Odo M, Ochei KC, Obeagu EI, Barinaadaa A, Eteng EU, et al. (2020) Cascade variabilities in TB case finding among people living with HIV and the use of IPT: assessment in three levels of care in cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 32(24): 9-18.
  43. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI (2022) Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus based on demographic and risk factors among pregnant women attending clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Nigeria. J Pub Health Nutri 5(8): 137.
  44. Madekwe CC, Madekwe CC, Obeagu EI (2022) Inequality of monitoring in Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Tuberculosis and Malaria: A Review. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(3): 6-15.
  45. Offie DC, Ibekwe AM, Agu CC, Esimai BN, Obeagu EI, et al. (2021) Fibrinogen and C-Reactive Protein Significance in Children Infected by Plasmodium falciparum Species in Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(15): 1-8.
  46. Okorie HM, Obeagu EI, Eze EN, Jeremiah ZA (2018) Assessment of coagulation parameters in malaria infected pregnant women in Imo state, Nigeria. International Journal of Current Research in Medical Sciences 4(9): 41-9.
  47. Ogbonna LN, Ezeoru VC, Ofodile AC, Ochiabuto OM, Obeagu EI, (2021) Gender Based Variations of Haematological Parameters of Patients with Asymptomatic Malaria in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(8): 75-80.
  48. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU (2023) A Review of knowledge, attitudes and socio-demographic factors associated with non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy among people living with HIV/AIDS. Int J Adv Res Biol Sci 10(9): 135- 42.
  49. Obeagu EI, Onuoha EC (2023) Tuberculosis among HIV Patients: A review of Prevalence and Associated Factors. Int J Adv Res Biol Sci 10(9): 128-34.
  50. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI, Abdullahi IO, Jakheng EW, Chukwueze CM, et al. (2022) Distribution Rate of Chlamydial Infection According to Demographic Factors among Pregnant Women Attending Clinics in Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. South Asian Journal of Research in Microbiology 13(2): 26-31.
  51. Viola N, Kimono E, Nuruh N, Obeagu EI (2023) Factors Hindering Elimination of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV Service Uptake among HIV Positive Women at Comboni Hospital Kyamuhunga Bushenyi District. Asian Journal of Dental and Health Sciences 3(2): 7-14.
  52. Okorie HM, Ifeanyi OE, Henry OHC, Nchekwubedi CS (2020) Comparative Study of Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (Elisa) and Rapid Test Screening Methods on HIV, Hbsag, Hcv and Syphilis among Voluntary Donors in. Owerri, Nigeria. J Clin Commun Med 2(3): 180-83.
  53. Eberendu IF, Ozims SJ, Agu GC, Amah HC, Obasi CC, et al. (2017) Impact of Human Activities on the Breeding of Mosquitoes of Human Disease in Owerri Metropolis, Imo State. Int J Adv Res Biol Sci 4(12): 98-106.
  54. Obeagu EI, Ofodile AC, Okwuanaso CB (2023) A Review on Socio Economic and Behavioral Aspects of Malaria and its Control among Children Under 5 Years of Age in Africa. J Pub Health Nutri 6 (1): 136.
  55. Balaji S, Deshmukh R, Trivedi V (2020) Severe Malaria: Biology, Clinical Manifestation, Pathogenesis and Consequences. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases 57(1): 1-13.
  56. Birhanu M, Asres Y, Adissu W, Yemane T, Zemene E, et al. (2017) Hematological Parameters and Hemozoin- Containing Leukocytes and Their Association with Disease Severity among Malaria Infected Children: A Cross-Sectional Study at Pawe General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases.
  57. Ezugwu UM, Onyenekwe CC, Ukibe NR, Ahaneku JE, Onah CE, et al. (2021) Use of ATP, GTP, ADP and AMP as an Index of Energy Utilization and Storage in HIV Infected Individuals at NAUTH, Nigeria: A Longitudinal, Prospective, Case-Controlled Study. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(47A): 78-84.
  58. Emannuel G, Martin O, Peter OS, Obeagu EI, Daniel K (2023) Factors Influencing Early Neonatal Adverse Outcomes among Women with HIV with Post Dated Pregnancies Delivering at Kampala International University Teaching Hospital, Uganda. Asian Journal of Pregnancy and Childbirth 6(1): 203-211.
  59. Igwe MC, Obeagu EI, Ogbuabor AO, Eze GC, Ikpenwa JN, et al. (2022) Socio-Demographic Variables of People Living with HIV/AIDS Initiated on ART in 2014 at Tertiary Health Institution in Enugu State. Asian Journal of Research in Infectious Diseases 10(4): 1-7.
  60. Vincent CC, Obeagu EI, Agu IS, Ukeagu NC, Onyekachi- Chigbu AC (2021) Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy among HIV/AIDS in Federal Medical Centre, Owerri. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(57A): 360-368.
  61. Igwe MC, Obeagu EI, Ogbuabor AO (2022) Analysis of the Factors and Predictors of Adherence to Healthcare of People Living with Hiv/Aids in Tertiary Health Institutions in Enugu State. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(3): 42-57.
  62. Madekwe CC, Madekwe CC, Obeagu EI (2022) Inequality of Monitoring in Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Tuberculosis and Malaria: A Review. Madonna University Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 2(3): 6-15.
  63. Echendu GE, Vincent CC, Ibebuike J, Asodike M, Naze N, et al. (2023) Weights of Infants Born to HIV Infected Mothers: A Prospective Cohort Study in Federal Medical Centre, Owerri, Imo State. European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research 10(8): 564-568.
  64. Nwosu DC, Nwanjo HU, Okolie NJ, Ikeh K, Ajero CM, et al. (2015) Biochemical Alterations in Adult HIV Patients on Antiretrqviral Therapy. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 4(3): 153-160**.**
  65. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU (2015) Effect of CD4 Counts on Coagulation Parameters among HIV Positive Patients in Federal Medical Centre, Owerri, Nigeria. Int J Curr Res Biosci Plant Biol 2(4): 45-49.
  66. Obeagu EI, Nwosu DC (2019) Adverse Drug Reactions in HIV/AIDS Patients on Highly Active Antiretro Viral Therapy: A Review of Prevalence. Int J Curr Res Chem Pharm Sci 6(12): 45-48.
  67. Obeagu EI, Scott GY, Amekpor F, Obeagu GU (2023) Implications of CD4/CD8 Ratios in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infections. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 9(2): 6-13.
  68. Obeagu EI, Ochei KC, Okeke EI, Anode AC (2016) Assessment of the Level of Haemoglobin and Erythropoietin in Persons Living with HIV in Umuahia. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 2(4): 29-33.
  69. Ifeanyi OE, Obeagu GU (2015) The Values of CD4 Count, among HIV Positive Patients in FMC Owerri. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 4(4): 906-910.
  70. Obeagu EI, Okeke EI, Anonde AC (2016) Evaluation of Haemoglobin and Iron Profile Study among Persons Living with HIV in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. Int J Curr Res Biol Med 1(2): 1-5.
  71. Alum EU, Ugwu OP, Obeagu EI, Okon MB (2023) Curtailing HIV/AIDS Spread: Impact of Religious Leaders. Newport International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 3(2): 28-31.
  72. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Paul-Chima UO (2023) Stigma Associated with HIV/AIDS: A Review. Newport International Journal of Public Health and Pharmacy 3(2): 64-67.
  73. Alum EU, Obeagu EI, Ugwu OP, Aja PM, Okon MB (2023) HIV Infection and Cardiovascular Diseases: The Obnoxious Duos. Newport International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 3(2): 95-99.
  74. Ibebuike JE, Nwokike GI, Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI (2018) A Retrospective Study on Human Immune Deficiency Virus among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinic in Imo State University Teaching Hospital. International Journal of Medical Science and Dental Research 1(2): 08- 14.
  75. Obeagu EI, Obarezi TN, Omeh YN, Okoro NK, Eze OB (2014) Assessment of some Haematological and Biochemical Parametrs in HIV Patients Before Receiving Treatment in Aba, Abia State, Nigeria. Res J Pharma Biol Chem Sci 5(2): 825-830.
  76. Obeagu EI, Obarezi TN, Ogbuabor BN, Anaebo QB, Eze GC (2014) Pattern of Total White Blood Cell and Differential Count Values in HIV Positive Patients Receiving Treatment in Federal Teaching Hospital Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Life Science, Biotechnology and Pharama Research 3(1): 186-189.
  77. Obeagu EI (2023) A Review of Challenges and Coping Strategies Faced by HIV/AIDS Discordant Couples. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences 3(1): 7-12.
  78. Oloro OH, Obeagu EI (2022) A Systematic Review on Some Coagulation Profile in HIV Infection. International Journal of Innovative and Applied Research 10(5): 1-11.
  79. Nwosu DC, Obeagu EI, Nkwuocha BC, Nwanna CA, Nwanjo HU, et al. (2015) Alterations in Superoxide Dismutiase, Vitamins C and E in HIV Infected Children in Umuahia, Abia state. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences 2(11): 268-271.
  80. Obeagu EI, Malot S, Obeagu GU, Ugwu OP (2023) HIV Resistance in Patients with Sickle Cell Anaemia. Newport International Journal of Scientific and Experimental Sciences 3(2): 56-59.
  81. Ifeanyi OE, Uzoma OG, Stella EI, Chinedum OK, Abum SC (2018) Vitamin D and Insulin Resistance in HIV Sero Positive Individuals in Umudike. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 4(2): 104-108.
  82. Ifeanyi OE, Leticia OI, Nwosu D, Chinedum OK (2018) A Review on Blood Borne Viral Infections: Universal Precautions. Int J Adv Res Biol Sci 5(6): 60-66.
  83. Nwovu AI, Ifeanyi OE, Uzoma OG, Nwebonyi NS (2018) Occurrence of Some Blood Borne Viral Infection and Adherence to Universal Precautions among Laboratory Staff in Federal Teaching Hospital Abakaliki Ebonyi State. Arch Blood Transfus Disord 1(2).
  84. Chinedu K, Takim AE, Obeagu EI, Chinazor UD, Eloghosa O, et al. (2017) HIV and TB Co-Infection among Patients Who Used Directly Observed Treatment Short-Course Centres in Yenagoa, Nigeria. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci 12(4): 70-75.
  85. Offie DC, Obeagu EI, Akueshi C, Njab JE, Ekanem EE, et al. (2021) Facilitators and Barriers to Retention in HIV Care among HIV Infected MSM Attending Community Health Center Yaba, Lagos Nigeria. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International 33(52B): 10-19.
  86. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Ede MO, Odo EO, Buhari HA (2023) Translation of HIV/AIDS Knowledge into Behavior Change among Secondary School Adolescents in Uganda: A Review. Medicine (Baltimore) 102(49): e36599.
  87. Anyiam AF, Arinze-Anyiam OC, Irondi EA, Obeagu EI (2023) Distribution of ABO and Rhesus Blood Grouping with HIV Infection among Blood Donors in Ekiti State Nigeria. Medicine (Baltimore) 102(47): e36342.
  88. Echefu SN, Udosen JE, Akwiwu EC, Akpotuzor JO, Obeagu EI (2023) Effect of Dolutegravir Regimen against Other Regimens on Some Hematological Parameters, CD4 Count and Viral Load of People Living with HIV Infection in South Eastern Nigeria. Medicine (Baltimore) 102(47): e35910.
  89. Opeyemi AA, Obeagu EI (2023) Regulations of Malaria in Children with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: A Review. Medicine (Baltimore) 102(46): e36166.
  90. Alum EU, Obeagu EI, Ugwu OPC, Samson AO, Adepoju AO, et al. (2023) Inclusion of Nutritional Counseling and Mental Health Services in HIV/AIDS Management: A Paradigm Shift. Medicine (Baltimore) 102(41): e35673.
  91. Aizaz M, Abbas FA, Abbas A, Tabassum S, Obeagu EI (2023) Alarming Rise in HIV Cases in Pakistan: Challenges and Future Recommendations at Hand. Health Sci Rep 6(8): e1450.
  92. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Obiezu J, Ezeonwumelu C, Ogunnaya FU, et al. (2023) Hematologic Support in HIV Patients: Blood Transfusion Strategies and Immunological Considerations. Newport International Journal of Biological and Applied Sciences 3(3).
  93. Obeagu EI, Ubosi NI, Uzoma G (2023) Storms and Struggles: Managing HIV Amid Natural Disasters. Int J Curr Res Chem Pharm Sci 10(11): 14-25.
  94. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU (2023) Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Tuberculosis Infection: A Review of Prevalence of Associated Factors. Int J Adv Multidiscip Res 10(10): 56-62.
  95. Obeagu EI, Malot S, Obeagu GU, Ugwu OP (2023) HIV Resistance in Patients with Sickle Cell Anaemia. Newport International Journal of Scientific and Experimental Sciences 3(2): 56-59.
  96. Alum EU, Ugwu OP, Obeagu EI, Aja PM, Okon MB, et al. (2023) Reducing HIV Infection Rate in Women: A Catalyst to Reducing HIV Infection Pervasiveness in Africa. International Journal of Innovative and Applied Research 11(10): 1-6.
  97. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Egba SI, Emeka-Obi OR (2023) Combatting Anemia in Pediatric Malaria: Effective Management Strategies. Int J Curr Res Med Sci 9(11): 1-7.
  98. Alene KA, Elagali A, Barth DD, Rumisha SF, Amratia P, et al. (2022) Spatial Codistribution of HIV, Tuberculosis and Malaria in Ethiopia. BMJ Global Health 7(2): e007599.
More from this journal

Cite this article

BibTeX
APA
RIS
@article{emmanuel2024,
  title   = {Impact of Malaria on Hematocrit Levels in HIV-Infected Individuals: A Comprehensive Review},
  author  = {Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu* and Getrude Uzoma Obeagu},
  journal = {Haematology International Journal},
  year    = {2024},
  volume  = {8},
  number  = {1},
  doi     = {10.23880/hij-16000231}
}
Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu* and Getrude Uzoma Obeagu (2024). Impact of Malaria on Hematocrit Levels in HIV-Infected Individuals: A Comprehensive Review. Haematology International Journal, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.23880/hij-16000231
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Impact of Malaria on Hematocrit Levels in HIV-Infected Individuals: A Comprehensive Review
AU  - Emmanuel Ifeanyi Obeagu* and Getrude Uzoma Obeagu
JO  - Haematology International Journal
PY  - 2024
VL  - 8
IS  - 1
DO  - 10.23880/hij-16000231
ER  -