Beta Fulltext view is in preview — article structure may vary. Browse all articles
Contents
Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources Research Article 16 min read

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

Deivasigamani B*
* Corresponding author
ISSN: 2578-4994  10.23880/jenr-16000368  Received: February 20, 2024  Published: March 28, 2024
 — views
 60 references
PDF
Keywords
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae Glomeromycota Symbiosis Root Colonization Arbuscules
Abstract

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are a type of symbiotic fungi that form mutually beneficial relationships with the roots of most plants. These fungi belong to the phylum Glomeromycota and are ubiquitous in terrestrial ecosystems. The symbiotic association between AMF and plant roots is known as arbuscular mycorrhiza.

Short communication

VAM fungi are diverse hosts which are not host specific [1, 2, 3]. suggested that the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are known as common mycorrhizal species with a wide range of hosts. Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) have a wide range of hosts and geographic location and are most abundant [4, 5, 6, 7]. They have been found associated with plant roots in arctic, temperate, and tropical regions and are distributed among all angiosperm families [8, 9]. They have been isolated from forests, open forests shrubs, savannahs, meadows, grasslands, sand dunes, desert areas and bituminous coal vegetation [10, 11, 12]. Many plant species of economic families have been described as mycorrhizal [13, 14]. It have the great power to provide unavailable resources to plants, increase the solubility of phosphorus, increase the supply of P, N, Ca, S, K, Mg and Mn and modify soil fertility to support plant development and nutrients to participate.Crops benefit from mycorrhizal associations because they better absorb nutrients and water from the soil [15, 16]. The importance of AMF in improving plant growth and plant resistance to soil-related diseases and in the rehabilitation of disturbed soils is well known [17, 18]. Traditional methods to investigate the presence of AMF in ecosystems are based on wet sieve techniques to extract spores from the soil and the classification of taxa based on their morphology. A distribution type of AMmushrooms is found in India. Bakshi [19] first described 14 types of spurs: Glomus Macrocarpum Tul and Tul var, G.geosporum, G.mosseae, Glomus sp.,Sclerocystis coremioides, Sclerocystis sp., Gigaspora, Calospora, Acaulospora, Endogone gigantea, E. Microcarpum, Endogone 1, Endogone 2, Endogone 3. Gerdemann and Bakshi [20] reported two new species, Glomus multicaule and Sclerocystissinuosa. Zhang, et al. [21] investigated taxa of AM fungi (species abundance) in tropical and natural forests of Dujiangyan subregion.

Muthukumar and Udaiyan [22] investigated the status of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) of plants growing in the Western Ghats region of southern India. Among the 329 species, there were 174 species, 35 species belonging to Acaulospora and species belonging to Gigaspora, Glomus, Sclerocystis and Scutellospora. Muthukumar and Udaiyan [22] investigated the control of Reddy, et al. [23] reported 15 fungal AMs collected at five different locations and 4,444in the rhizosphere soil of three Solanaceae plants, namely tomato, pepper and eggplant. The genus is the most abundant fungus, followed by Acaulospora, Sclerocystis, Gigaspora and Entrophospora. Sixteen AMF strains were found in the potato fields of Meghalaya belonging to the genera Acaulospora, Gigaspora, Glomus, Pacispora and Scutellospora. Ruhling and Tyler [24] reported that soil moisture content and organic matter were the most important factors controlling the distribution of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal macro fungi in Swedish

forests. Opik et al. [25] suggested that the distribution in these forests, it is closely related to the distribution of host plants but is more influenced by edaphic conditions. Kernaghan and Harper [26] observed similar trends in the relationship between plant type diversity and EM diversity with increasing elevation through tree line in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Edap-controlled soil rhizosphere AM spores in distribution and weather conditions. According to Khaliel [27], pH is the only edaphic factor that determines the abundance of AM fungi. However, Bergan and Koske [28] reported no effect of pH on spore density and mycorrhizal frequency. Oehl, et al. [29] studied 16 regions with different intensity of agricultural land use in Central Europe and concluded that land use intensity and soil type significantly influence the presence and spread of many AM fungi, including AMF community structure. Barraclough and Olsson [30] reported that slash-and-burn soil chemistry practices increased nutrients available for growth and reduced AM fungi in soils with Didiereamadagascariensis is determined by soil properties. There is considerable evidence indicating the importance of soil conditions in regulating mycorrhizal fungal communities [31, 32]. A comprehensive report on the distribution and diversity of mycorrhizal fungi in disturbed soil environments has been published. Singh, et al. [33] reported that breeding populations, species abundance and diversity of VAM fungi were significantly reduced in jhum drought fields even after 5 years of recovery period as were drought fields after clear cut agriculture and burning compared to natural forest areas. They play an important role in the biology and ecology of forest trees, influencing growth, water and nutrient uptake, and protection from pathogens. Mycorrhizal fungi are hallmarks of forest and cultivated ecosystems [34]. Soil microbial communities, of which mycorrhizal fungi are particularly important, are critical to soil fertility and can influence crop yield and safety [35]. Hayman [36] reported that AMF populations are heterogeneous. And their distribution is influenced by many factors, including soil, host plants, environmental conditions, and agricultural practices. Changes in the population and diversity of AMF are strongly influenced by changes in soil conditions, environmental conditions, host specificity and destruction conditions [37, 38, 39]. Regarding the characteristics of household destruction, Johnson, et al. [40] showed that intensive land use, such as land subsidence, can alter soil properties and degrade AMF species and diversity. Mohammad, et al. [41] reported that the lower spore density in their study was due to low carbon sequestration and microbial activity. Other researchers have found that humidity reduces AMF colonization and AMF spore density [42, 32]. Thompson [43] reported that reduction of AMF populations in soil due to prolonged incubation period could be ameliorated by AMF inoculation. Sieverding [44] also reported that AMF populations and diversity are increased in natural ecosystems compared to agricultural ecosystems.

This is due to the greater diversity of plant communities and management practices in agro ecosystems can negatively affect AMF population [45].

AMF Bio-Fertilizer

AMF Bio-Fertilizer is a combination of natural compounds to increase soil fertility. This fertilizer is very good for soil health and plant growth [46]. Over the past 2444 years, various scientific tests on AMF have shown many benefits of AMF on soil quality and crop yield. Therefore, it is conceivable that AMF could be considered as a substitute for organic fertilizers in the near future. Because the application of mycorrhizae reduces the doses of chemical fertilizers, especially phosphorus [47]. Adverse effects on food security, crop health, air and water systems caused by synthetic fertilizers, herbicides and fungal diseases have led to many environmental, plant and human health problems due to their continued use [48]. AMF is committed to optimal agriculture Reduce the use of chemical fertilizers by up to 50% to improve production. However, this calculation depends on the diversity of plant species and their spread in harsh environments. To achieve sustainable agriculture, AMF as a bio fertilizer will be more important. Because the proper treatment of these fungi can significantly reduce the use of pesticides. Inoculation of AMF propagules (inoculum) in prepared soil is the main method for this purpose. Unfortunately, AMF is an obligate species and cannot reproduce without growth in pure culture. Large- scale development of AMF inoculum is very difficult and challenging due to these limitations. There are three main characteristics of AMF inoculum: First, AMF soils contain colonized root segments, AMF spores and hyphae, so they can be used as inoculum in the root zone of plants. However, without accurate knowledge of plant abundance, species and disease, soil conditioners are ineffective and run the risk of spreading weed seeds and pathogens. Spores extracted from the soil can be used as starting material for the development of the inoculum. Adequate alkalinity for AMF growth can be obtained by growing known AMF species with twin plants (i.e. plants capable of multiple AMF species). This is the type of stressor used for large-scale seeding because it usually contains a more balanced collection of the same types of cells in the soil seed. Finally, only fragments of contaminated roots of AMF hosts isolated from trap cultures can be used as inoculum. Although new mass processing methods [49] and seed coating technologies [50] have been developed, large-scale inoculum development for AMF and is very challenging [51]. A major challenge with AMF inoculum is the inevitable symptomatic behavior of AMF, i.e. the need to expand host facilities and complete life cycles. This means that the breeding process must include garden time and space using plants guests “As a result, the establishment of the AMF reference collection consists of 4,444 methods that are significantly different and more restrictive than other microbiological collections. Furthermore, the lack of rapid methods to determine when and how often AMF colonizes host plants often poses a threat to AMF and its operations. Controlling the high required for large-scale use is also a difficult task. However, cultivation of AMF is easier for plant-based systems than during transplantation because less inoculum is required. “Vaccination methods at first appear to be ineffective and financially burdensome.” If AMF diversity is well maintained and developed, and AMF-friendly management, such as tropical mulching [52] and conservation tillage [53] the AMF population can grow without damage before or after planting, overabundance of mycorrhizal biodiversity in the future. It is understood that the network of the organism remains unchanged and dies. Of the experiments conducted to study the effectiveness of AMF as a bio fertilizer, alone or in combination with other soil microorganisms, almost all were: - The amount of grain yield of Triticum aestivum at the level of individuals recorded when inoculated with Pseudomonas striata. Followed by Glomus Fasculatum [54]. Rajendran and Jayasree [55] have investigated the effect of bio fertilizers such as Rhizobium, AM fungi, etc. on Acacia Nilotica and also showed significant improvement in growth length and biomass compared to the control. In the combination of Rhizobium + AM + Azospirillum, the highest growth and biomass were reported in the treatment group, which was 156.8% higher than the control group. Bioengineers have been studied to prevent collar rot in clams [56]. The best disease reduction was observed in the combination of Rhizobium and AM compared to the control (100% plant death). Each modification improved different crop parameters by controlling disease and reducing shoot mortality. “The effects of one and two vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi (VAM) of Gigaspora rosea, Glomus intraradices + Gigaspora rosea, Glomus etunicatum + Glomusintraradices were studied on Medicago sativa plant and nutrient uptake (NPK), there was a significant increase Na. Shoot and root dry weight [57]. Effect of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Glomusintraradices, Pseudomonas Putida, Pseudomonas Alcaligenes, Aspergillus Awamori) and Rhizobium sp. on seedling growth, nodule yield and root rot in investigated field conditions Barzana, et al. [58])”. The number of nodules per root system was significantly higher in plants treated with Rhizobium sp.

Then the Control Plant

In a temperate environment, Bhat, et al. [59] investigated the effects of Rhizobium fungi and Arbuscular Vesicular Mycorrhizae on Green gram [59]. Rhizobia and VAM had significant effects on nodule nitrogen levels, yield parameters, NPK content of grain and straw, and grain protein content. The introduction of VAM is advantageous because it is cheap, easy to administer and promotes plant growth and seed quality. Chick Pea (Cicer Arietinum) and Rhizobium sp. Growth and response to inoculation. The VAM has been studied [60]. These research results showed that in the pot test, total weight increased by 10.83% and germination increased by 9.0% compared to the control.

References

  1. Gerdemann JW (1968) Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Plant Growth. Ann Rev Phytopath 6: 379-418.
  2. Jagpal R, Mukerji KG (1988) Mycorrhiza in afforestation In: Plant Roots and their Environment. McMichael and Person H, Elsevier (Eds) Science Pub, pp: 809-813.
  3. Jagpal R, Mukerji KG (1991) Reforestation in Waste Land Using Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae: In: Recent Development in Tree Plantations of Humid/Sub-Humid Tropical Asia. Univ Pertania, Malaysia, pp: 309-319.
  4. Mukerji KG, Mandeep (1998) Mycorrhizal Relationships of Wetlands and Rivers Associated Plants: In: Ecology of Wetlands and Associated Systems. Mujumdar SK, Miller EW, Brenner FJ (Eds) the Pennsylvania Academy of Sciences Pub, Pennsylvania, pp: 240-257.
  5. Wolfe BE, Klinomus JN (2005) Breaking New Ground: Soil Communities and Exotic Plants Invasion. BioScience (55)6: 477-487.
  6. Smith SE, Read DJ (2008) Mycorrhizal Symbiosis (Edn Hardcover), pp: 800.
  7. Lee EH, Eo JK, Ka KH, Eom AH (2013) Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and their Roles in Ecosystems. Mycobiology 41(3): 121-125.
  8. Kendrick B, Berch S (1985) Mycorrhizae: Application in Agriculture and Forestry: In: Comprehensive Biotechnology, Robinson CW 4 (Edn) Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp: 109-150.
  9. Schusler A, Walker C (2010) The Glomeromycota: A Species List with New Families and New Genera: 1-58.
  10. Pfleger FL, Steard EL, Moyel RK (1994) Role of VAM Fungi in Mine Land Revegetation: In: Mycorrhizae and Plant Health.
  11. Pfleger FL, Cuenca G, Andrade DZ, Escalante G (1998) Diversity of Glomalean Spores from Natural, Disturbed and Revegetated Communities Growing on Nutrient- Poor Tropical Soils. Soil Biol Biochem 30(6): 711-719.
  12. Puspitasari RT (2005) Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) at Coastal Forest Ujung Genteng, Sukabumi- West Java. Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia.
  13. Sutton JC (1973) Development of Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in Crop Plants. Can J Bot 51: 2487-2493.
  14. Bird GW, Rich JR, Glover SW (1974) Increased Endomycorrhizae of Cotton Roots in Soil Treated with Nematicides. Phytopathology 64: 48-51.
  15. Kunwar IK, Reddy PFM, Manoharachary C (1999) Occurrence and Distribution of AMF Association with Garlic Rhizosphere Soil. Mycorrhiza News 11(2): 4-6.
  16. Smith SE and Read DJ (2008) Mycorrhizal Symbiosis (Edn Hardcover) pp: 800.
  17. Jeffries P, Gianinazzi S, Perotto S, Turnau K, Barea JM (2003) The Contribution of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Sustainable Maintenance of Plant Health and Soil Fertility. Biol Fertil Soil 37: 1-16.
  18. Rillig MC (2004) Arbuscular Mycorrhizae and Terrestrial Ecosystem Processes. Ecol Lett 7: 740–754.
  19. Bakshi BK (1974) Mycorrhiza and its Role in Forestry. Forest Res Inst, India, pp: 801.
  20. Gerdemann JW and Bakshi BK (1976) Endogonaceae of India: Two New Species. Trans Br Mycol Soc 66(20): 340-343.
  21. Zhang Y, Guo LD, Liu RJ (2004) Survey of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Deforested and Natural Forest Land in the Subtropical Region of Dujiangyan, Southwest China. Plant and Soil 261: 257-263.
  22. Muthukumar T, Udaiyan K (2000) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Association in Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats of Southern India, National Conference on Mycorrhiza. India, Mycorrhiza 9: 297- 313.
  23. Reddy BN, Sreevani A, Raghavender CR (2006) Association of AM fungi in three solanaceous vegetable crops. J Mycol Pl Pathol 36(1): 52-56.
  24. Ruhling A, Tyler G (1990) Effects of Simulated Nitrogen Deposition to the Forest Floor on the Macrofungal Flora of a Beech Forest. Ambio 20: 261-263.
  25. Opik M, Moora M, Liira J, Zobel M (2006) Composition of Root-Colonizing Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities in Different Ecosystems Around the Globe. J Ecol 94: 778-790.
  26. Kernaghan G, Harper KA (2001) Community Structure of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Across an Alpine/Subalpine Ecotone. Ecography 24(20): 181-188.
  27. Khaliel AS (1988) Incidence of VAM in Some Desert Plants and Correlation with Edaphic Factors: In: Mycorrhizae for Green Asia. First Asian Conference on Mycorrhizae (Edn) Mahadevan A, Raman N, Natarajan K, Univ of Madras, Madras, pp: 56-59.
  28. Bergan M and Koske (1981) Distribution and Ecology of a VAM in a Scrub Jungle. Trans Br Mycol Soc 83: 157-158.
  29. Oehl F, Laczko E, Bogenrieder A, Stahr K, Bosch R, et al. (2010) Soil Type and Land Use Intensity Determinethe Composition of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities. Soil Biol Biochem 42: 724-738.
  30. Barraclough AD, Olsson PA (2018) Slash-and-burn practices decrease Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi abundance in soil and roots of Didirea madagascariensis in the dry tropical forest of Madagascar. Fire: 1: 37.
  31. Bruns TD (1995) Thoughts on the Process that Maintain Local Species Diversity of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi. Plant Soil 170: 63-73.
  32. Erland S, Taylor AFS (2002) Diversity of Ecto-Mycorrhizal Communities in Relation to the Abiotic Environment: In: Heijden MVD, Sanders I (Eds) Mycorrhizal Ecology. Ecological Studies 157, Berlin, pp: 163-200.
  33. Singh SS, Tiwari SC, Dkhar MS (2003) Species Diversity of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (VAM) Fungi Injhum Fallow and Natural Forest Soils of Arunachal Pradesh, Northeastern India. Tropical Ecology 44(2): 207-215.
  34. Brundrett MC (2009) Mycorrhizal Associations and Other Means of Nutrition of Vascular Plants: Understanding the Global Diversity of Host Plants by Resolving Conflicting Information and Developing Reliable Means of Diagnosis. Plant Soil 320: 37-77.
  35. Rooney DC, Killham K, Bending GD, Baggs E, Weih, et al. (2009) Mycorrhizas and Biomass Crops: Opportunities for Future Sustainable Development. Trends Plant Sci 14: 542-549.
  36. Hayman DS (1982) The Physiology of Vesicular- Arbuscular Endomycorrhizal Symbiosis. Can J Bot 61: 944-963.
  37. Wubet T, Weifi M, Kottke I, Teketay D, Oberwinkler F (2004) Molecular Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Prunus Afcana, An Endangered Medicinal Tree Species in Dry A from Ontane Forests of Ethiopia. New Phytol 161: 517-528.
  38. Opik M, Moora M, Liira J, Zobel M (2006) Composition of Root-Colonizing Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities in Different Ecosystems Around the Globe. J Ecol 94: 778-790.
  39. Verma N, Tarafdar JC, Srivastava KK, Panwar J (2008) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) Diversity in Prosopis Cineraria (L.) Druce under arid agroecosystems. Agric Sci, China 7: 754-761.
  40. Johnson JM, Houngnandan P, Kane AKB, Neyra M (2013) Diversity Patterns of Indigenous Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Associated with Rhizosphere of Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata (L.) Walp.) In Benin, West Africa. Pedobiologia 56(3): 121-128.
  41. Mohammad MJ, Hamad SR, Malkawi HI (2003) Population of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Semi- Arid Environment of Jordan was influenced by Biotic and Abiotic Factors. Journal of Arid Environment 53(3): 409-417.
  42. Black R, Tinker PB (1979) The Development of Endomycorrhizal Root Systems II Effect of Agronomic Factors and Soil Conditions on the Development of Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Infection in Barley and on the Endophyte Spore Density. New Phytol 83: 401-413.
  43. Thompson JP (1987) Decline of Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in Long Fallow Disorder of Field Crops and its Expression in Phosphorus Deficiency of Sunflower. Aust J Agric Res 38(5): 847-867.
  44. Sieverding E (1990) Ecology of VAM Fungi in Tropical Agrosystems. Agric Ecosyst Environ 29: 369-390.
  45. Rabatin SC, Stinner BR (1989) The Significance of Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi-Soil Macroinvertebrate Interactions in Agroecosystems. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 27: 195-204.
  46. Sadhana B (2014) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) as a Bio fertilizers-A Review. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 3(4): 384-400.
  47. Ortas I (2012) The Effect of Mycorrhizal Fungal Inoculation on Plant Yield, Nutrient Uptake and Inoculation Effectiveness Under Long-Term Field Conditions. Field Crops Res 125: 35-48.
  48. Yang S, Li F, Malhi SS, Wang P, Dongrang S, et al. (2004) Long Term Fertilization Effects on Crop Yield and Nitrate Nitrogen Accumulation in Soil in North Western China. Agron J 96: 1039-1049.
  49. Ijdo M, Cranenbrouck S, Declerck S (2011) Methods for Large-Scale Production of AM Fungi: Past, Present, and Future. Mycorrhiza 21: 1-16.
  50. Vosatka M, Latr A, Gianinazzi S, Albrechtova J (2013) Development of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Biotechnology and Industry: Current Achievements and Bottlenecks. Symbiosis 58: 29-37.
  51. Heijden MVDGA, Martin FM, Selosse MA, Sanders IR (2015) Mycorrhizal Ecology and Evolution: The Past, the Present, and the Future. New Phytol 205(4): 1406-1423.
  52. Lehman RM, Taheri WI, Osborne SL, Buyer JS, Douds DD (2012) Fall Cover Cropping can Increase Arbuscular Mycorrhizae in Soils Supporting Intensive Agricultural Production. Agric Ecosyst Environ Appl Soil Ecol 61: 300-304.
  53. Sale V, Aguilera P, Laczko E, Mader P, Berner A, et al. (2015) Impact of Conservation Tillage and Organic Farming on the Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Soil Biol Biochem 84: 38-52.
  54. Mukherjee PK, Rai RK (2000) Effect of Arbuscular Mycorrhizae and Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria on Growth, Yield and Phosphorus Uptake in Wheat (Triticum Aestivam), Indian. J Agron 45(3): 602-607.
  55. Rajendran K, Jayasree R (2007) Effect of Bio Fertilizers on Quality Seedling Production of Acacia Nilotica. Journal of Non-timber products 14: 5-11.
  56. Zahid MA, Iqbal SHM, Ali A, Hussain S (2007) Efficacy of Microbial Bio-Agents for the Control of Collar Rot Disease in Chick Pea. Pak J Bot 39(7): 2667-2672.
  57. Khan IA, Ayub N, Mirza SN, Nizami SM, Azam M (2008) Synergistic Effect of Dual Inoculation (Vesicualr- Arbuscular Mycorrhizae) on the Growth and Nutrients Uptake of Medicago Sativa. Pak J Bot 40(2): 939-945.
  58. Barzana G, Aroca R, Paz JA, Chaumont F, Ballesta MCM, et al. (2012) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis Increases Relative Apoplastic Water Flow in Roots of the Host Plant Under Both Well-Watered and Drought Stress Conditions. Ann Bot 109: 1009-1017.
  59. Bhat MI, Rashid A, Rasool FU, Mahdi SS, Haq SA, et al. (2010) Effect of Rhizobium and Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae Fungi on Green Gram (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) Under Temperate Conditions. Research Journal of Agricultural Sciences 1(2): 113-118.
  60. Giri, Nishita, Joshi NC (2010) Growth and Yield Response of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) to Seed Inoculation with Rhizobium sp. Nature and Science 8(9): 232-236.
More from this journal

Cite this article

BibTeX
APA
RIS
@article{deivasigamani2024,
  title   = {Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi},
  author  = {Deivasigamani B},
  journal = {Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources},
  year    = {2024},
  volume  = {8},
  number  = {1},
  doi     = {10.23880/jenr-16000368}
}
Deivasigamani B (2024). Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.23880/jenr-16000368
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
AU  - Deivasigamani B
JO  - Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources
PY  - 2024
VL  - 8
IS  - 1
DO  - 10.23880/jenr-16000368
ER  -